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Terrorism

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Politics and government

                                                             Terrorism
                                                                   General
                                                               Definitions
                                                                   History
                                                               Conventions
                                                         Counter-terrorism
                                                          War on Terrorism
                                                                     Lists
                                                             Organizations
                                                                 Incidents
                                                                     Types
                                                            Agro-terrorism
                                                                 Anarchist
                                                              Bioterrorism
                                                           Cyber-terrorism
                                                             Eco-terrorism
                                                            Narcoterrorism
                                                               Nationalist
                                                         Nuclear terrorism
                                                                 Political
                                                                    Racist
                                                                 Religious
                                                                     State
                                                           State-sponsored
                                                                   Tactics
                                                                 Hijacking
                                                             Assassination
                                                               Car bombing
                                                           Suicide bombing
                                                                Kidnapping
                                                            Configurations
                                                                    Fronts
                                                                 Lone-wolf

   Smoke billowing from the World Trade Center after the 11th September
   2001 terrorist attacks-one of the most iconic examples of modern
   terrorism.
   Enlarge
   Smoke billowing from the World Trade Centre after the 11th September
   2001 terrorist attacks-one of the most iconic examples of modern
   terrorism.

   Terrorism is a term used to describe violence or other harmful acts
   committed (or threatened) against civilians by groups or persons for
   political, nationalist, or religious goals. As a type of unconventional
   warfare, terrorism means to weaken or supplant existing political
   landscapes through capitulation, acquiescence, or radicalization, as
   opposed to subversion or direct military action.

   "Terrorist attacks" usually are characterized as "indiscriminate", the
   "targeting of civilians", or as executed "with disregard for human
   life". The term "terrorism" often is used to assert that the enemy's
   political violence is immoral, wanton, and unjustified. Per the most
   common definition of terrorism— typically used by states, academics,
   counter-terrorism experts, and civil, non-governmental organizations,
   "terrorists" are actors who do not belong to any recognized armed
   forces or who don't abide the laws of war, and who, therefore, are
   regarded as "rogue actors".

   Those labelled "terrorists" rarely identify themselves so and, instead,
   typically use terms referring to their ideological or ethnic struggle,
   such as: separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary,
   vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, jihadi or
   mujaheddin, or fedayeen, or any similar-meaning word in other
   languages.

   Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in
   furthering their objectives; both right-wing and left-wing political
   parties, nationalistic, and religious groups, revolutionaries and
   ruling governments.

   Some persons and governments believe that the term "Terrorism", as
   defined in dictionaries, now has a negative connotation, under the
   theory that a person who attacks the civilian population is, instead, a
   militant, regardless of the status of the victims of terrorism.

Definition

   One 1988 study by the US Army found that more than one hundred (100)
   definitions of the word "terrorism" exist and have been used.

   Some news sources refuse to use the term "terrorism"; others use the
   term in context. For example, the BBC and CNN has described the
   Northern Irish IRA as "terrorists", but describes Palestinian armed
   groups who employ the same methods against Israeli citizens as
   "militants".

   Terrorism is a crime in all countries where such acts occur, and is
   defined by statute—see the wikipedia article definition of terrorism
   for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions
   of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also
   foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different
   countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not
   recognize the possibility of legitimate use of violence by civilians
   against an invader in an occupied country and would, thus, label all
   resistance movements as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction
   between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the
   distinction is a political judgment.

   In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended
   to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants
   with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a
   government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing
   any act."

Key criteria

   Official definitions determine counter-terrorism policy and are often
   developed to serve it. Most official definitions outline the following
   key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or
   legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a
   following statement from the perpetrators.

   Violence – According to Walter Laqueur of the Centre for Strategic and
   International Studies, "the only general characteristic [of terrorism]
   generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the
   threat of violence". However, the criterion of violence alone does not
   produce a useful definition, as it includes many acts not usually
   considered terrorism: war, riot, organized crime, or even a simple
   assault. Property destruction, that does not endanger life, is not
   usually considered a violent crime, but some have described property
   destruction by the Earth Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front
   as terrorism.

   Psychological impact and fear – The attack was carried out in such a
   way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact.
   Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” a product of internal logic,
   devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also
   attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation
   of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively
   affect a government's legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of
   the given terrorist organization and/or ideology behind a terrorist
   act. The September 11th attacks on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon
   are examples of this. Attacking the World Trade Centre symbolizes that
   the terrorists can threaten the economic foundation of America and its
   capitalist ideals, and attacking the Pentagon symbolizes that America's
   great and prided military strength is yet vulnerable at its very core
   to the terrorists power.

   Perpetrated for a Political Goal – Something all terrorist attacks have
   in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. This is often
   the key difference between an act of terrorism and a hate crime or
   lone-wolf "madman" attack. Terrorism is a political tactic, not unlike
   letter writing or protesting, that is used by activists when they
   believe no other means will effect the kind of change they desire. The
   change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than
   the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship
   between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is
   integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic" struggle, such
   as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as
   Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism)
   becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly
   committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent
   civilians.

   Deliberate targeting of non-combatants – It is commonly held that the
   distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its intentional and specific
   selection of civilians as direct targets. Much of the time, the victims
   of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because
   they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings" that tie
   into a specific view of the world that the terrorist possess. Their
   suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear,
   getting a message out to an audience, or otherwise accomplishing their
   political end.

   Unlawfulness or illegitimacy – Some definitions of terrorism give
   weight to a distinction between the actions of a legitimate government
   and those of non-state actors, including individuals and small groups.
   In this view, government actions that might be violent, operate through
   fear, aim at political ends, and target civilians would not be
   terrorism if they are being pursued by agents who are accountable to
   legitimate governmental authority. Governmental accountability,
   presumably, would operate to limit and restrain the violence, both in
   volume and tactics. Furthermore, taking this approach to the definition
   of terrorism would help prevent some of the analytic problems
   associated with characterizing some military tactics (such as
   firebombing of cities) which are designed to affect civilian support
   for the enemy war effort. However, governments which repeatedly resort
   to these kinds of tactics tend to lose legitimacy, whether
   philosophically or politically. Loss of legitimacy erodes the
   distinction between governmental and non-governmental violence where
   there is a consistent practice of targeting civilians.

Pejorative use

   In his book "Inside Terrorism" Bruce Hoffman wrote in Chapter One:
   Defining Terrorism that

     On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative
     term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is
     generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with
     whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. `What is
     called terrorism', Brian Jenkins has written, `thus seems to depend
     on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment;
     and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its
     opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral
     viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some
     organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective,
     depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the
     person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of
     the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however,
     one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in
     a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an
     ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.

   The difference between the words "terrorist" or "terrorism" and the
   terms above can be summed up by the subjective aphorism, "One man's
   terrorist is another man's freedom fighter." This is exemplified when a
   group that uses irregular military methods is an ally of a State
   against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the State and starts
   to use the same methods against its former ally. During World War II
   the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army was allied with the British,
   but during the Malayan Emergency, members of its successor, the Malayan
   Races Liberation Army, were branded terrorists by the British. yet
   twenty years later when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting
   against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers,
   their attacks were labeled terrorism by President Bush.

   Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called
   terrorist by the Western governments or media. Later, these same
   persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called statesmen by
   similar organizations.example is Nobel Peace Prize laureate Nelson
   Mandela.Cite error 3; Invalid <ref> tag; invalid names, e.g. too many

   Sometimes states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture
   and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain
   organization are terrorists. For example for many years some branches
   of the United States government refused to label members of the Irish
   Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists, while it was using methods against
   one of United States closest allies, that, that ally (Britain), branded
   as terrorist attacks. This was highlighted by the Quinn v. Robinson
   case

   For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a
   reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the
   term.

Democracy

   The relationship between terrorism and democracy is complex. Research
   shows that terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate
   political freedom and that the nations with the least terrorism are the
   most democratic nations. However, one study suggests that suicide
   terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding
   this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide
   campaign has targeted a democracy- a state with a considerable degree
   of political freedom. The study suggests that concessions awarded to
   terrorists during the 80s and 90s for suicide attacks increased their
   frequency.

   Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies to include ETA under
   Francisco Franco, the Shining Path under Alberto Fujimori, and the
   Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders.

   While a nation espousing democratic ideology may claim a sense of
   legitimacy or higher moral ground than regimes that promote terrorism,
   any act of terrorism within the former creates a dilemma for the
   democratic state. On one hand, a state that prides itself in its
   tolerance of peaceful demonstration may choose to approach the problem
   of terrorism in ways outlined by its constitution; this may render that
   state ineffective in dealing with the problem, which could reflect upon
   its citizens a sense of impotency in a time of crisis. On the other
   hand, should that same terrorized state go outside its constitution to
   deal with the problem, the very notion of democracy itself pales in
   meaning. This, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play
   into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to
   delegitimize democracy.

Perpetrators

   Acts of terrorism can be carried out by individuals, groups, or states.
   According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state
   actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a
   state of war. The most common image of terrorism is that it is carried
   out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a
   particular cause. However, many of the most successful operations in
   recent time, such as 9/11, the London underground bombing, and the 2002
   Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, comprised
   of close friends, family members and other strong social networks.
   These groups benefited from the free flow of information, and were able
   overcome the obstacles they encountered where others failed due to lack
   of information and communication. Over the years, many people have
   attempted to come up with a terrorist profile to attempt to explain
   these individuals' actions through their psychology and social
   circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern
   profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists.

Terrorist groups

State sponsors

   A state can sponsor terrorism by funding a terrorist organization,
   harboring terrorism, and also using state resources, such as the
   military, to directly perform acts of terrorism. State-sponsored
   terrorism is widely denounced by the international community. When
   states do provide funding for groups considered by some to be
   terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.

Tactics

Methods of attack

   Terrorists seek to demoralize and paralyze their enemy with fear, and
   also to pressure governments into conceding to the terrorist's agenda.

   While they act according to different motivations and goals, all
   terrorist groups have one tactic in common: to achieve maximum
   publicity in order to intimidate and generate a message as a means to
   attain its objectives. Terrorism uses violence on one part of society
   to instill fear in the larger part of society to make a change.
   Terrorism employs propaganda as a tactic to ensure the attention of the
   public through the attention from the media. The term Propaganda of the
   Deed, coined by Malatesta, Cafiero, and Covelli, states that the
   message is most strongly conveyed through violence.

   Often damage is done with an improvised explosive device although
   chemical weapons have been used on occasion. A source of concern is
   also a possible use of a nuclear weapon or biological weapons. In the
   September 11, 2001 attacks, planes were used as guided incendiary
   devices.

   Terrorist groups may arrange for secondary devices to detonate at a
   slightly later time in order to kill emergency-response personnel
   attempting to attend to the dead and wounded. Repeated or suspected use
   of secondary devices can also delay emergency response out of concern
   that such devices may exist. Examples include a (failed) device that
   was meant to release cyanide-gas during the February 26, 1993 World
   Trade Centre bombing; and a second car bomb that detonated 20 minutes
   after the December 1, 2001 Ben Yehuda Street Bombing by Hamas in
   Jerusalem.

Training

   There are and have been training camps for terrorists. For the
   September 11, 2001 attacks, the pilots also took flying courses. The
   range of training depends greatly on the level of support the terrorist
   organization receives from various organizations and states. In nearly
   every case the training incorporates the philosophy and agenda of the
   groups leadership as justification for the training as well as the
   potential acts of terrorism which may be committed. State sanctioned
   training is by far the most extensive and thorough, often employing
   professional soldiers and covert operatives of the supporting state.
   The training generally includes physical fitness, combat or martial
   arts, firearms, explosives, intelligence/counterintelligence, and field
   craft. More specialized training may include mission specific subjects
   such as, language, cultural familiarization, communications, and
   surveillance techniques. In every instance the quality of training is
   extremely high and well organized.

Preparation

   Preparation of a major attack such as the September 11, 2001 attacks
   may take years, whereas a simpler attack, depending on the availability
   of arms, may be almost spontaneous.

Cover

   Where terrorism occurs in the context of open warfare or insurgency,
   its perpetrators may shelter behind a section of the local population.
   Examples include the Intifada on Israeli-occupied territory, and
   insurgency in Iraq. This population, which may be ethnically distinct
   from the counter-terrorist forces, is either sympathetic to their
   cause, indifferent, or acts under duress.

   Terrorists preparing for the September 11, 2001 attacks changed their
   appearance to avoid looking radical.

Funding

   Terrorist organizations do not usually have only one means of funding,
   but many. Funding can be raised in both legal and illegal ways. Some of
   the most common ways to raise funds are through charities, well funded
   organizations, or a non violent organization with similar ideologies.
   In the absence of state funding, terrorists may rely on organized crime
   to fund their activities. This has included kidnapping, drug
   trafficking, or robbery. Additionally, terrorists have also found many
   more sources of revenue. Osama bin Laden, for example, invested
   millions in terrorism that his family made in the construction industry
   building luxury mansions for Saudi Arabia's oil- billionaires.

Communication

   The revolution in communication technology over the past 10-15 years
   has dramatically changed how terrorist organizations communicate.
   E-mails, fax transmissions, websites, cell phones, and satellite
   telephones have made it possible for organizations to contemplate a
   global strategy. However, too great a reliance on this new technology
   leaves organizations vulnerable to sophisticated monitoring of
   communication and triangulation of its source. When the media published
   the information that the U.S. government was tracking Osama bin Laden
   by monitoring his phone calls, he ceased using this method to
   communicate.

Responses to terrorism

   Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include
   re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of
   fundamental values. The term counter-terrorism has a narrower
   connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.

   Specific types of responses include:
     * Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced
       police powers
     * Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
     * Preemptive or reactive military action
     * Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
     * Preemptive humanitarian activities
     * More permissive interrogation and detention policies

History

   Terrorist tactics were used in the 1st century by Zealots in a fierce
   and unrelenting terror campaign against the Roman Empire. In the 11th
   century, the radical Islamic sect known as the Hashshashin specialized
   in terrorising the Abbasid elite with politically motivated
   assassinations, eventually turning their attention towards Christian
   Crusaders.

   The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used
   to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club in their rule of
   post-Revolutionary France, the so-called " Reign of Terror".

   19th century terrorist groups included the anarchists in Europe and the
   United States (including Narodniks in Tsarist Russia), militant members
   of the turn-of-the-century Zionist movement, the Irish Republican
   Brotherhood, and groups seeking independence for Armenia and Macedonia.

   Some of the Most successful terrorist groups, were the vast arrange of
   guerilla, partisan, and resistance movements that were organised and
   supplied by the allies. Perhaps the most successful terrorist group of
   the war and of all time would the British Special Operations Executive,
   which conducted operations in every theatre of the war, and provided an
   invaluble contribution to the eventual allied victory.

Examples of major incidents

   "International Terrorist Incidents, 2001" by the US Department of State
   Enlarge
   "International Terrorist Incidents, 2001" by the US Department of State
     * The Munich Massacre of Israeli Olympic athletes in 1972
     * The October 1984 bombing in Brighton, England, by the PIRA in an
       unsuccessful but lethal attempt to kill then-Prime Minister
       Margaret Thatcher
     * The June 1985 bombing of Air India Flight 182 originating from
       Canada
     * The destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland on
       December 21, 1988
     * The 1993 World Trade Centre bombing
     * The 1993 Mumbai bombings
     * The Oklahoma City bombing by Timothy McVeigh on April 19, 1995
     * The Centennial Olympic Park bombing in 1996
     * The US embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania on August 7, 1998
     * The Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland ( August 15, 1998)
     * The August 31 – September 22: Russian Apartment Bombings kills
       about 300 people, leading Russia into Second Chechen War
     * The September 11, 2001 attacks in New York, and Washington D.C.
     * The 2001 Indian Parliament attack on December 13, 2001
     * The Passover Massacre on March 27, 2002 in Netanya, Israel
     * The Moscow theatre siege and the Beslan school siege in Russia
     * The Bali bombing in October 2002
     * The March 11, 2004 attacks in Madrid
     * The July 7, 2005 bombings in London
     * The second Bali bombing on October 1, 2005
     * The Mumbai train bombings on 11 July 2006.

   The deadliest events described as terrorism and not known to have been
   sponsored by a state were the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World
   Trade Centre in New York, the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia,
   and Somerset County, Pennsylvania with a death toll of around 3000.

   Some terrorist attacks or plots were designed to kill thousands of
   people, but either failed or fell short. Such plans include the 1993
   World Trade Centre bombing, Operation Bojinka, and the 2006
   transatlantic aircraft plot.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism"
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