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Taj Mahal

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of Asia

   Taj Mahal
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   Taj Mahal

   The Tāj Mahal ( Hindi: ताज महल; Persian/ Urdu: تاج محال) is a monument
   located in Agra, India, constructed between 1631 and 1654 by a
   workforce of 22,000. The Mughal Emperor Shāh Jahān commissioned its
   construction as a mausoleum for his favourite wife, Arjumand Bano
   Begum, who is better known as Mumtāz.

   The Taj Mahal (sometimes called "the Taj") is generally considered the
   finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements
   of Persian, Indian and Islamic. The Taj Mahal has achieved special note
   because of the romance of its inspiration. While the white domed marble
   mausoleum is the most familiar part of the monument, the Taj Mahal is
   actually an integrated complex of structures.

Origin and inspiration

   Agra (location of Taj Mahal)
   Location of the Taj Mahal within India

   Shāh Jahān, who commissioned the monument, was a prolific [lover] with
   effectively limitless resources. He had previously created the gardens
   and palaces of Shalimar in honour of his wife, Mumtaz. After her death
   in childbirth (she had already borne him fourteen children) Shah Jahan
   was reportedly inconsolable; the court chronicler 'Abd al-Hamid Lahawri
   tells us that before her death the emperor had but twenty white hairs
   in his beard, but thereafter many more. The contemporary court
   chroniclers paid an unusual amount of attention to Mumtaz Mahal's death
   and Shah Jahan's grief at her demise, and it may well be that the
   traditional "love-story" associated with the construction of the Taj
   has some basis in fact. The Taj Mahal was begun not long after Mumtaz's
   death in 1631. The principal mausoleum was completed seventeen years
   later, and the surrounding buildings and garden five years after that.
   Visiting Agra in 1663, the French traveller François Bernier gave the
   following description of the Taj Mahal and Shah Jahan's motive for
   building it:


   Taj Mahal

     I shall finish this letter with a description of the two wonderful
    mausoleums which constitute the chief superiority of Agra over Delhi.
   One was erected by Jehan-guyre [sic] in honour of his father Ekbar; and
   Chah-Jehan raised the other to the memory of his wife Tage Mehale, that
       extraordinary and celebrated beauty, of whom her husband was so
    enamoured it is said that he was constant to her during life, and at
      her death was so affected as nearly to follow her to the grave".


   Taj Mahal

Influences on Taj Mahal design

   The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on many design traditions,
   particularly Hindu, Ottoman, and earlier Mughal architecture.

   The overall design derived inspiration from a number of successful
   Timurid and Mughal buildings. These include the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of
   Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb,
   Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and his own
   Jama Masjid. Under Shah Jahan's patronage, Mughal building reached new
   levels of refinement; while previous Mughal building had primarily been
   constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white
   marble inlaid with semi-precious stones.
   Interior of masjid dome, showing inlaid geometric decoration
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   Interior of masjid dome, showing inlaid geometric decoration

   Hindu craftsmen, particularly sculptors and stonecutters, plied trade
   throughout Asia during this period, and their work was particularly
   prized by tomb builders. Whilst the rock-cut architecture which
   characterises much of this construction had little influence on the Taj
   Mahal (carvings are only one form of the decorative element), other
   Indian buildings such as the Man Singh palace in Gwalior were an
   inspiration for much Mughal palace architecture and the source for the
   chhatris which can be seen on the Taj Mahal.

Design elements

   Consistent repeated design elements are employed throughout the
   complex. These unify the complex with a single aesthetic vocabulary.
   Design elements of the Taj Mahal.
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   Design elements of the Taj Mahal.

   Major design features of the tomb are echoed throughout the complex --
   both the tomb and the outlying buildings.
     * Finial: decorative crowning element of the Taj Mahal domes
     * Lotus decoration: depiction of lotus flower sculpted on tops of
       domes
     * Onion dome: massive outer dome of the tomb (also called an amrud or
       apple dome)
     * Drum: cylindrical base of the onion dome, raising it from the main
       building
     * Guldasta: decorative spire attached to the edge of supporting walls
     * Chattri: a domed and columned kiosk
     * Spandrel: upper panels of an archway
     * Calligraphy: stylised writing of verses from the Qu'ran framing
       main arches
     * Arch: also called pishtaq (Persian word for portal projecting from
       the facade of a building) and
     * Dado: decorative sculpted panels lining lower walls

   Most of the elements can be found on the gateway, mosque and jawab as
   well as the mausoleum.

The garden

   The complex is set in and around a large charbagh (a formal Mughal
   garden divided into four parts). Measuring 320 m × 300 m, the garden
   has sunken parterres or flowerbeds, raised pathways, avenues of trees,
   fountains, water courses, and pools that reflect the Taj Mahal.

   Each of the four quarters of the garden is divided into 16 flowerbeds
   by raised pathways. A raised marble water tank at the centre of the
   garden, halfway between the tomb and the gateway, reflects the Taj
   Mahal.

   The charbagh garden was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor
   Babur, a design inspired by Persian gardens. The charbagh is meant to
   reflect the gardens of Paradise (from the Persian paridaeza -- a walled
   garden). In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, paradise as
   described as ideal garden, filled with abundance. Water plays a key
   role in these descriptions: In Paradise, these text say, four rivers
   source at a central spring or mountain, and separate the garden into
   north, west, south and east.
   Walkways beside reflecting pool
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   Walkways beside reflecting pool

   Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular in form, with a central tomb or
   pavilion in the centre of the garden. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual
   in siting the main element, the tomb, at the end rather than at the
   centre of the garden. But the existence of the newly discovered Mahtab
   Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna provides a
   different interpretation -- that the Yamuna itself was incorporated
   into the garden's design, and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers
   of Paradise.

   The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such as its
   fountains, brick and marble walkways, geometric brick-lined flowerbeds,
   and so on, are similar to Shalimar's, and suggest that the garden may
   have been designed by the same engineer, Ali Mardan.

   Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation,
   including roses, daffodils, and fruit trees in abundance. As the Mughal
   Empire declined, the tending of the garden declined as well. When the
   British took over management of the Taj Mahal, they changed the
   landscaping to resemble more the formal lawns of London.

Outlying buildings

   Gateway to the Taj Mahal
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   Gateway to the Taj Mahal

   The Taj Mahal complex is bounded by a crenellated red sandstone wall on
   three sides. The river-facing side is unwalled. Outside the wall are
   several additional mausoleums, including those of many of Shah Jahan's
   other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant. These
   structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of smaller
   Mughal tombs of the era.

   On the inner (garden) side, the wall is fronted by columned arcades, a
   feature typical of Hindu temples later incorporated into Mughal
   mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed kiosks (chattris), and
   small buildings which may have been viewing areas or watch towers (such
   as the so-called Music House, now used as a museum).

   The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of
   red sandstone. The style is reminiscent of that of Mughal architecture
   of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's
   archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that
   decorates the tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura (inlaid)
   decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have
   elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone
   buildings of the complex.
   Interior of jawab
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   Interior of jawab

   At the far end of the complex, two grand red sandstone buildings open
   to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern
   walls.
   Taj Mahal mosque or masjid
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   Taj Mahal mosque or masjid

   The two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western
   building is a mosque; its opposite is the jawab or "answer", whose
   primary purpose was architectural balance (and which may have been used
   as a guesthouse during Mughal times). The distinctions are that the
   jawab lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the
   floors of the jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was
   laid out the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble.

   The mosque's basic design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan,
   particularly to his Jama Masjid in Delhi: a long hall surmounted by
   three domes. Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall
   into three areas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to
   either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens on to an enormous
   vaulting dome.

The tomb

Base

   Simplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor plan.
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   Simplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor plan.
   Main iwan and side pishtaqs
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   Main iwan and side pishtaqs

   The focus of the Taj Mahal is the white marble tomb. Like most Mughal
   tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin: a symmetrical building
   with an iwan, an arch-shaped doorway, topped by a large dome.

   The tomb stands on a square plinth. The base structure is a large,
   multi-chambered structure. The main chamber houses the cenotaphs of
   Shah Jahan and Mumtaz (the actual graves are a level below).

   The base is essentially a cube with chamfered edges, roughly 55 metres
   on each side (see floor plan, right). On the long sides, a massive
   pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan, with a similar
   arch-shaped balcony above. These main arches extend above the roof of
   the building by use of an integrated facade.

   To either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above
   and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the
   chamfered corner areas.

   The design is completely uniform and consistent on all sides of the
   building. Four minarets, one at each corner of the plinth, facing the
   chamfered corners, frame the tomb.

Dome

   Base, dome, and minaret
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   Base, dome, and minaret

   The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular
   feature. Its height is about the same size as the base of the building,
   about 35 m. Its height is accentuated because it sits on a cylindrical
   "drum" about 7 m high.

   Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also
   called an amrud or guava dome). The top of the dome is decorated with a
   lotus design, which serves to accentuate its height. The dome is topped
   by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Islamic and Hindu
   decorative elements.
   Finial
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   Finial

   The dome shape is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks)
   placed at its corners. The chattri domes replicate the onion shape of
   main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb, and
   provide light to the interior. The chattris also are topped by gilded
   finials.

   Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from the edges of the base
   walls, and provide visual emphasis of the dome height.

   The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas.

Finial

   The main dome is crowned by a gilded spire or finial.The finial used to
   be made of gold until the early 1800's, but is now made of bronze. The
   finial provides a clear example of the integration of traditional
   Islamic and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a
   crescent moon, a typical Islamic motif, whose horns point heavenward.
   Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and
   the finial point combine to create a trident shape -- reminiscent of
   the traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.

   Similarly, the spire is made up of a number of bulbous forms. The
   central form bears a striking resemblance to a Hindu sacred water
   vessel (kalash or kumbh)..

Minarets

   At the corners of the plinth stand minarets: four large towers each
   more than 40 m tall. The minarets again display the Taj Mahal's basic
   penchant for symmetrical, repeated design.

   The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of
   mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer.
   Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two
   working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a
   final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those
   on the tomb.

   The minaret chattris share the same finishing touches: a lotus design
   topped by a gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed
   slightly out of plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the
   event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall
   constructions of the period) the material would tend to fall away from
   the tomb.

Decoration

Exterior decoration

   Calligraphy on large pishtaq
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   Calligraphy on large pishtaq

   Nearly every surface of the entire complex has been decorated. The
   exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest to be found
   in Mughal architecture of any period.

   Once again, decoration motifs are repeated throughout the complex. As
   the surface area changes -- a large pishtaq has more area than a
   smaller -- the decorations are refined proportionally.

   The decorative elements come in basically three categories:

               o Calligraphy
               o Abstract geometric elements
               o Vegetative motifs

   Islamic strictures forbade the use of anthropomorphic forms.

   The decorative elements were created in three ways:

               o Paint or stucco applied to the wall surface
               o Stone inlay
               o Carvings

Calligraphy

   Herringbone
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   Herringbone

   Throughout the complex passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative
   elements. The calligraphy is a florid and practically illegible thuluth
   script, created by the Mughal court's Persian calligrapher, Amanat
   Khan, who was resident at the Mughal court. He has signed several of
   the panels.

   The calligraphy is made by jasper inlaid in white marble panels. Some
   of the work is extremely detailed and delicate (especially that found
   on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb). Higher panels are written
   slightly larger to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below.

   Recent scholarship suggests that Amanat Khan chose the passages as
   well. The texts refer to themes of judgment: of doom for nonbelievers,
   and the promise of Paradise for the faithful. The passages include:
   Surah 91 (The Sun), Surah 112 (The Purity of Faith), Surah 89
   (Daybreak), Surah 93 (Morning Light), Surah 95 (The Fig), Surah 94 (The
   Solace), Surah 36 (Ya Sin), Surah 81 (The Folding Up), Surah 82 (The
   Cleaving Asunder), Surah 84 (The Rending Asunder), Surah 98 (The
   Evidence), Surah 67 (Dominion), Surah 48 (Victory), Surah 77 (Those
   Sent Forth) and Surah 39 (The Crowds).

Abstract geometric decoration

   Incised painting
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   Incised painting

   Abstract forms are used especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway,
   mosque, and jawab, and to a lesser extent on the surfaces of the tomb.
   The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery
   of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. (The incised
   painting technique is to scratch a channel in the stone, and to then
   lay a thick paint or stucco plaster across the surface. The paint is
   then scraped off the surface of the stone, leaving paint in the
   incision.)

   On most joining areas, herringbone inlays define the space between
   adjoining elements. White inlays are used in the sandstone buildings,
   dark or black inlays on the white marble of the tomb and minarets.
   Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted
   dark, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity.

   Floors and walkways throughout use contrasting tiles or blocks in
   tessellation patterns.

Vegetative motifs

   The lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados that have been
   sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The
   marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of these
   carvings.

   The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra
   dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and
   fruits. The inlay stones are yellow marble, jasper and jade, levelled
   and polished to the surface of the walls.
   Spandrel detail
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   Spandrel detail

Interior decoration

   The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional
   decorative elements. One may say without exaggeration that this chamber
   is a work of jewellery.
   Screen surrounding cenotaphs
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   Screen surrounding cenotaphs

   Here the inlay work is not pietra dura, but lapidary. The inlay
   material is not marble or jade but precious and semiprecious gemstones.
   Every decorative element of the tomb's exterior has been redefined with
   jeweler's art.

The inner chamber

   The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and
   Shah Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually
   without precedent or equal.

   The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry from
   each face, only the south (garden facing) door is used.

   The interior walls are about 25 m high, topped by a "false" interior
   dome decorated with a sun motif.

   Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical
   with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq
   about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies
   or viewing areas; each balcony's exterior window has an intricate
   screen or jali cut from marble.

   In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through
   roof openings covered by the chattris at the corners of the exterior
   dome.

   Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas
   relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels,
   reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the
   exterior of the complex.

The jali

   The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made
   from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with
   intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with
   semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining
   vines, fruits and flowers.

The cenotaphs

   Cenotaphs, interior of the Taj Mahal
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   Cenotaphs, interior of the Taj Mahal

   Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies
   of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain chamber beneath
   the inner chamber of the Taj Mahal. They are buried on a north-south
   axis, with faces turned right (west) toward Mecca.

   The Taj Mahal has been raised over their cenotaphs (from Greek keno
   taphas, empty tomb). The cenotaphs mirror precisely the placement of
   the two graves, and are exact duplicates of the grave stones in the
   basement below.

   Mumtaz's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber.
   On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 by 2.5 m is a smaller marble
   casket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and
   semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and
   praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge
   meant to suggest a writing tablet.

   Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the
   only asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger
   than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on
   slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with
   lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of
   this casket is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing
   tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating men's and
   women's caskets respectively.)

Details of lapidary

   (craftsmanship is best seen in enlarged version -- click image to see
   enlargement)

   Arch of jali, entry to cenotaphs

                                   Delicate piercework

                                                      Inlay detail

                                                                  Inlay detail

Construction

   The Taj Mahal was built on a stretch of land to the south of the walled
   city of Agra which had belonged to Maharajah Jai Singh: Shah Jahan
   presented him with a large palace in the centre of Agra in exchange.
   Construction began with setting foundations for the tomb. An area of
   roughly three acres was excavated and filled with dirt to reduce
   seepage from the river. The entire site was levelled to a fixed height
   about 50 m above the riverbank. The Taj Mahal is 180 feet tall. The
   dome itself measures 60 feet in diameter and 80 feet high.
   View from the Agra Fort.
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   View from the Agra Fort.

   In the tomb area, wells were then dug down to the point that water was
   encountered. These wells were later filled with stone and rubble,
   forming the basis for the footings of the tomb. An additional well was
   built to same depth nearby to provide a visual method to track water
   level changes over time.

   Instead of lashed bamboo, the typical scaffolding method, workmen
   constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the inner and outer
   surfaces of the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen
   estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to legend, Shah
   Jahan decreed that anyone could keep bricks taken from the scaffold,
   and it was dismantled by peasants overnight.

   A fifteen-kilometre tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and
   materials from Agra to the construction site. According to contemporary
   accounts teams of twenty or thirty oxen strained to pull the blocks on
   specially constructed wagons.

   To raise the blocks into position required an elaborate post-and-beam
   pulley system. Teams of mules and oxen provided the lifting power.

   The order of construction was
     * The plinth
     * The tomb
     * The four minarets
     * The mosque and jawab
     * The gateway

   The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining
   parts of the complex took an additional 10 years. (Since the complex
   was built in stages, contemporary historical accounts list different
   "completion dates"; discrepancies between so-called completion dates
   are probably the result of differing opinions about the definition of
   "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially
   complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex.)

Water infrastructure

   Water for the Taj Mahal was provided through a complex infrastructure.
   Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs -- an animal-powered
   rope and bucket mechanism. The water flowed into a large storage tank,
   where, by thirteen additional purs, it was raised to large distribution
   tank above the Taj Mahal ground level.

   From this distribution tank, water passed into three subsidiary tanks,
   from which it was piped to the complex. A 0.25 m earthenware pipe lies
   about 1.5 m below the surface, in line with the main walkway; this
   filled the main pools of the complex. Additional copper pipes supplied
   the fountains in the north-south canal. Subsidiary channels were dug to
   irrigate the entire garden.

   The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the feed pipes.
   Instead, a copper pot was provided under each fountain pipe: water
   filled the pots allowing equal pressure in each fountain.

   The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure
   have survived.

Craftsmen

   The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. The project demanded
   talent from many quarters.

   The names of many of the builders who participated in the construction
   of the Taj Mahal in different capacities have come down to us through
   various sources.

   Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi, trained by the great Ottoman
   architect Koca Mimar Sinan Agha are frequently credited with a key role
   in the architectural design of the complex, but in fact there is little
   evidence to support this tradition, and the connection with Sinan (who
   died in 1588) is clearly a fairy-tale.

   'Puru' from Benarus, Persia (Iran), has been mentioned supervising
   architect in Persian language texts (e.g. see ISBN 964-7483-39-2).

   The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan from the Ottoman Empire,
   considered to be the premier designer of hemispheres and builder of
   domes of that age.

   Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore, cast the solid gold finial that crowned
   the Turkish master's dome.

   Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi, was chosen as the chief sculptor
   and mosaicist.

   Amanat Khan from Persian Shiraz, Iran was the chief calligrapher (this
   fact is attested on the Taj Mahal gateway itself, where his name has
   been inscribed at the end of the inscription).

   Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons.

   Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz, Iran handled finances
   and the management of daily production.

   The creative team included sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from
   Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from
   Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only
   marble flowers — thirty seven men in all formed the creative nucleus.
   To this core was added a labour force of twenty thousand workers
   recruited from across northern India.

   European commentators, particularly during the early period of the
   British Raj, suggested that some or all of the Taj Mahal was the work
   of European artisans. Most of these suggestions were purely
   speculative, but one dates back to 1640, when a Spanish Friar who
   visited Agra wrote that Geronimo Veroneo, an Italian adventurer in Shah
   Jahan's court, was primarily responsible for the design. There is no
   reliable scholarly evidence to back up this assertion, nor is Veroneo's
   name mentioned in any surviving documents relating to the construction.
   E.B. Havell, the principal British scholar of Indian art in the later
   Raj, dismissed this theory as unsupported by any evidence, and as
   inconsistent with the known methods employed by the designers. His
   conclusions were further supported by the research of Muhammad Abdullah
   Chaghtai, who examined carefully the origin of the tradition that the
   Taj was designed by a European, and concluded that it was a spurious
   19th century invention, based on the misapprehension that "Ustad Isa",
   so often credited with the Taj's design, must have been a Christian
   because he bore the name "Isa" (Jesus). In fact this is a common Muslim
   name as well - and furthermore there is no source earlier than the 19th
   century which mentions an "Ustad Isa" in connection with the Taj Mahal
   (even if he existed he cannot, in any case, have been trained by Sinan,
   because the latter died in 1588). Chaghtai thought it more likely that
   the chief architect was Ustad Ahmad, the designer of Shahjahanabad, but
   admitted that this could not be conclusively proved from existing
   sources.

Materials

   The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and
   Asia. Over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials
   during the construction. The translucent white marble was brought from
   Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab and the jade and crystal from China.
   The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan,
   while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia.
   In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into
   the white marble.

Costs

   The total cost of the Taj Mahal's construction was about 50 million
   rupees. At that time, 1 gram of gold was sold for about 1.4 rupees.
   Based on the October 2005 gold price that would translate to more than
   500 million US$. (Comparisons based on the value of gold in two
   different economic eras are often misleading, however).

History

   Soon after its completion, Shah Jahan was deposed and put under house
   arrest at nearby Agra Fort by his son Aurangzeb. Legend has it that he
   spent the remainder of his days gazing through the window at the Taj
   Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the Taj Mahal
   next to his wife, the only disruption of the otherwise perfect symmetry
   in the architecture. By the late 19th century parts of the Taj Mahal
   had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the Indian
   rebellion of 1857 the Taj Mahal faced defacement by British soldiers,
   sepoys, and government officials who chiseled out precious stones and
   lapis lazuli from its walls.

   At the end of the 19th century British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a
   massive restoration project, completed in 1908. He also commissioned
   the large lamp in the interior chamber (modelled on one hanging in a
   Cairo mosque when local craftsmen failed to provide adequate designs).
   It was during this time the garden was remodelled with the more English
   looking lawns visible today. By the 20th century the Taj Mahal was
   being better taken care of. In 1942 the government erected a behemoth
   scaffolding over it in anticipation of an air attack by the German
   Luftwaffe and later by the Japanese Air Force (see photo). During the
   India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971 scaffoldings were erected by the
   government to mislead would-be bomber pilots.

   Its most recent threats came from environmental pollution on the banks
   of the Yamuna River including acid rain occurring due to the Mathura
   oil refinery (something opposed by Supreme Court of India directives).

   As of 1983 the Taj Mahal was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
   Today it is a major tourist destination.

   Recently the Taj Mahal was claimed to be Sunni Wakf property, on the
   grounds that it is the grave of a woman whose husband Emperor Shah
   Jahan was a Sunni. The Indian government has dismissed claims by the
   Muslim trust to administer the property, saying their claims are
   baseless and the Taj Mahal is Indian national property.

   The poet Tagore, a Nobel laureate, called Taj Mahal "a drop of tear on
   the cheek of history".

Visiting

   The Taj Mahal is often described as one of the seven wonders of the
   modern world. Millions of tourists have visited the site - more than
   three million in 2004, according to the BBC - making it one of the most
   popular international attractions in India.

Legends and theories

Origins of the name

   The name Taj comes from Persian, the language of the Mughal court,
   meaning crown, and Mahal, also Persian, means place, area, or
   neighbourhood. Together, the term Taj Mahal translated into rough
   English from the original Persian means "Crown Place" or "The Place of
   the Crown." Some sources suggest that Taj Mahal is a shorter variant of
   Mumtaz Mahal, the formal court name and title of Arjumand Banu Begum,
   meaning First Lady of the Palace. As early as 1663, the French
   traveller François Bernier referred to the place as Tage Mehale.

The "Black Taj"

   A longstanding popular tradition holds that an identical mausoleum
   complex was originally supposed to be built on the other side of the
   river, in black marble instead of white, for Shah Jahan himself. The
   story suggests that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb
   before the black version could be built. Ruins of dark marble found
   across the river are, the story suggests, the unfinished base of this
   "Black Taj".

   Recent scholarship disputes this theory, and throws some interesting
   light on the design of the Taj Mahal. All other major Mughal tombs were
   sited in gardens that form a cross, with the tomb at the intersection
   of the vertical and horizontal pieces. The Taj Mahal gardens, by
   contrast, form a great 'T', with the tomb at the centre of the
   crosspiece. But the outline of the ruins on the other river bank would
   extend the design of the Taj Mahal gardens to form a cross of
   proportions typical of other Mughal tombs. Further, the marble in the
   ruins opposite the Taj Mahal, while dark from staining, were originally
   white. In addition, an octagonal pool in these ruins would have
   reflected the Taj Mahal. Scholars have called these ruins the Mahtab
   Bagh or "Moonlight Garden".

   Scholars now believe that the reflection of the Taj Mahal in this pool
   is in fact what was meant when people referred to the 'black taj'.

Shah Jahan's asymmetric tomb

   Shah Jehan's cenotaph, offset from center. Shah Jahan was interred at
   the tomb eight years after its completion.
   Enlarge
   Shah Jehan's cenotaph, offset from centre. Shah Jahan was interred at
   the tomb eight years after its completion.

   Aurangzeb had Shah Jahan's tomb and cenotaph placed in the Taj Mahal
   rather than building him a separate mausoleum such as other emperors
   had. He thus destroyed the symmetry of the Taj Mahal design. A
   variation on the Black Taj legend suggests that Aurangzeb's decision
   was made from malice or parsimony. In Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb however,
   which was a major influence on the Taj Mahal design, Aurangzeb's
   grandparents were interred in a similar asymmetric fashion. Note: main
   chamber contains cenotaphs (false tombs); the actual tombs, configured
   identically, are in the crypt below.

Mutilation of the craftsmen

   A seemingly endless number of stories describe, often in horrific
   detail, deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan
   inflicted on various craftsmen associated with the tomb. No evidence
   for these legends exists, and no respected authority finds them
   credible.

Stolen items

   Legends abound concerning items originally attached to the Taj Mahal
   which were stolen. Some original items have been removed over time, but
   many are mere legends only. These legends include:
     * Gold leaf, supposed to have covered all or part of the dome.
     * A golden railing supposed to have circled the cenotaphs (suggested
       perhaps by a temporary enamel railing that was replaced after
       completion of the marble jali)
     * Diamonds supposedly inlaid in the cenotaphs
     * A blanket woven of pearls supposedly covering Mumtaz's cenotaph

   Numerous items from the Taj Mahal have gone missing however; these
   include the following
     * An entrance door of carved jasper
     * Gold leaf that adorned the cast iron joints of the jali screen
       around the cenotaphs
     * Numerous rich carpets that covered the interior of the tomb
     * Enamelled lamps from the interior of the tomb

British plan to demolish the Taj Mahal

   There is an often-repeated story that Lord William Bentinck, governor
   of India in the 1830s, planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction
   off the marble. In some versions of the tale, the demolition crew were
   ready to begin their work but were stopped only because Bentinck was
   unable to make the scheme financially viable. There is no contemporary
   evidence for this story, which may have emerged in the late nineteenth
   century when Bentinck was being criticised for his penny-pinching
   Utilitarianism, and when Lord Curzon was emphasising earlier neglect of
   the monument, and presenting himself as a saviour of Indian
   antiquities. According to Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli, the
   story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from
   Agra Fort and of the metal from a famous but obsolete Agra cannon.

Was the Taj Mahal originally a temple or a palace?

   P.N. Oak, President of The Institute for Rewriting Indian History, has
   repeatedly asserted that the Taj Mahal was a Hindu temple of the god
   Shiva, usurped and remodeled by Shah Jahan. The temple's

   Oak also claims that the tombs of Humayun, Akbar and Itmiad-u-Dallah —
   as well as the Vatican in Rome, the Kaaba in Mecca, Stonehenge and "all
   historic buildings" in India — were also Hindu temples or palaces.

     The Taj is only a typical illustration of how all historic buildings
     and townships from Kashmir to Cape Comorin though of Hindu origin
     have been ascribed to this or that Muslim ruler or courtier.

   He further says that if Taj Mahal was not a Shiva temple, that it might
   then have been the palace of a Rajput king. In any case (he says), the
   Taj Mahal was Hindu in origin, stolen by Shah Jahan and adapted as a
   tomb — although Oak also claims that Mumtaz is not buried there.

   Oak further states that the numerous eyewitness accounts of Taj Mahal
   construction, and Shah Jahan's construction orders and voluminous
   financial records, are elaborate frauds meant to hide its Hindu origin.

   His many provocative assertions have gained a lot of popular interest
   and made Oak a well-known media figure.

   He has sued to break open the cenotaphs, and to tear down brick walls
   in the lower plinth: In these "fake tombs" and "sealed apartments", Oak
   says Shivalingams or other temple items were hidden by Shah Jahan.

   According to Oak, the Indian government's refusal to allow him
   unfettered access amounts to a conspiracy against Hinduism.

   Oak's assertions are not accepted by legitimate scholars. But these
   stories are widely believed and publicized by some contemporary
   Hindutva (Hindu nationalist) activists.

   In 2000 India's Supreme Court dismissed Oak's petition to declare that
   a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal and reprimanded him for bringing the
   action. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High
   Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and
   preacher who claims that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King
   Parmar Dev in 1196.

More information about alternate theories of origin

     * The Question of the Taj Mahal by Bhat, P.S.; Athawale, A.L. (1985).
       Itihas Patrika, vol.5.
     * Taj Mahal: The True Story by P.N. Oak ISBN 0-9611614-4-2
     * Was the Taj Mahal a Vedic Temple? The Photographic Evidence!
       Stephen Knapp.
     * "An Architect Looks at the Taj Mahal Legend" by Marvin Mills.
     * The Letter of Aurangzeb ordering repairs to the Taj Mahal in the
       year just before it is said to have been completed.
     * The Badshahnama is the history written by the Emperor's own
       chronicler. Knapp argues that this proves that Shah Jahan had
       acquired the Taj Mahal from the previous owner, Jai Singh, grandson
       of Raja Mansingh, after selecting this site for the burial of Queen
       Mumtaz.

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