   #copyright

South America

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Central & South American
Geography

          "Southern America" may also refer to the Southern United States.

   World map showing South America
   Enlarge
   World map showing South America
   A satellite composite image of South America
   Enlarge
   A satellite composite image of South America

   South America is a continent situated in the western hemisphere and,
   mostly, the southern hemisphere, bordered on the west by the Pacific
   Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America
   and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.

   As part of the Americas like North America, South America is named
   after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the
   Americas were not the East Indies, but a New World unknown to
   Europeans.

   South America has an area of 17,840,000 km² (6,890,000 sq mi), or
   almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was
   estimated at more than 371,000,000. South America ranks fourth in area
   (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after
   Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).

Geography

   South America is generally considered a continent forming the southern
   portion of the American landmass, south and east of the Panama Canal
   transecting the Isthmus of Panama. Depending on source, South and North
   America are sometimes considered a single continent or supercontinent,
   while constituent regions are infrequently considered subcontinents.
   Geologically, almost all of mainland South America sits on the South
   American Plate. Geopolitically, all of Panama – including the segment
   east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of
   North America alone and among the countries of Central America.

   It became attached to North America only recently (geologically
   speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million
   years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The Andes,
   likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range,
   run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the
   Andes is largely tropical rainforest, the vast Amazon River basin. The
   continent also contains drier regions such as Patagonia and the
   extremely arid Atacama Desert.

   The South American continent also includes various islands, many of
   which belong to countries on the continent. Many of the islands of the
   Caribbean (or West Indies) – e.g., the Leeward and Lesser Antilles –
   sit atop the Caribbean Plate, a tectonic plate with a diffuse
   topography. The islands of Aruba, Trinidad, and Tobago sit on the
   northerly South American continental shelf. The Netherlands Antilles
   and the federal dependencies of Venezuela lie along the northerly South
   American [[]]. Geopolitically, the island states and overseas
   territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or
   subregion of North America. The South American nations that border the
   Caribbean Sea – including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and
   French Guiana – are also known as Caribbean South America.

   South America contains the world's highest waterfall, Angel Falls, the
   largest river (by volume), the Amazon River, the longest mountain
   range, the Andes, the driest desert, Atacama, the largest rainforest,
   the Amazon Rainforest, the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia, the
   highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca, and
   the world's southernmost town, Puerto Toro, Chile.

   South America's major natural resources are copper, iron ore, tin, and
   oil. The many resources of South America have become useful around the
   world. However, they often have hindered the development of diversified
   economies. This has led to major highs and lows in the economy of South
   American states, often also causing political instability.

   South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals
   including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuna, and tapir. The
   Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major
   proportion of the Earth's species.

   The largest country in South America by far, in both area and
   population, is Brazil, followed by Argentina. Regions in South America
   include the Andean States, the Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Brazil.

History

   Map of South America. (1750) Geograph: Robert de Vaugondy.
   Enlarge
   Map of South America. (1750) Geograph: Robert de Vaugondy.

The rise of agriculture and domestication of animals

   - South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people
   crossing the Bering Land Bridge, which is now the Bering Strait. The
   first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South
   America dates back to circa 6500 BCE, when potatoes, chillies and beans
   began to be cultivated for food in the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence
   further suggests that manioc, which remains a staple foodstuff today,
   was being cultivated as early as 2000 BCE.

   By 2000 BCE many agrarian village communities had been settled
   throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a
   widespread practice along the coast which helped to establish fish as a
   primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this
   time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.

   South American cultures began domesticating llamas and alpacas in the
   highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both
   transportation and meat.

Pre-Columbian civilizations

   The rise of agriculture and the subsequent rise of permanent
   settlements allowed for the beginnings of civilizations in South
   America. The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in Colombia.
   They established a confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had
   a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and
   farmers.

   The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900
   BC, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were
   found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation
   of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.

   Other main cultures: Caral or Supe Valley Civilization (2500 Bc - 1500
   BC, Central Peru), Valdivia (Ecuador), Moche (100 BC - 700 AC, at the
   northern coast of Peru), Tiuahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC - 1200 BC,
   Bolivia), Paracas - Nazca (400 BC - 800 AC, Peru), Wari or Huari Empire
   (600 - 1200, Central and northern Peru), Chimu Empire (1300 - 1470,
   Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas, Aymaran kingdoms (1000 - 1450,
   Bolivia and southern Peru) and others

   Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization
   dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantinsuyu, or
   "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly
   distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched
   stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace
   farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of
   excellent metalwork in Inca civilization.

European colonization

   Physical map of South America
   Enlarge
   Physical map of South America

   In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that
   time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west,
   signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed that all the
   land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two
   countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south
   meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In
   terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now
   known to comprehend most of the South American soil), would belong to
   Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements
   of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly
   enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the
   meridian.

   Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South
   America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from
   Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed
   the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.

   European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) to which
   the native populations had no resistance, and systems of forced labor,
   such as the infamous haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated
   the native population under Spanish control. After this, African
   slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly
   brought in to replace them.

   The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to
   Christianity, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices
   that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were
   only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism
   with their traditional beliefs. On the other hand, the Spaniards did
   not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and
   the Roman Catholic Church's evangelization in Quechua, Aymara and
   Guaraní actually contributed to the expansion of these native
   languages, equipping them with writing systems.

   Eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo
   class. These and the original natives were often forced to pay unfair
   taxes to the Spanish government and were punished harshly for
   disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols
   and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included the many gold and
   silver sculptures found in the Americas, which were melted down before
   transport to Europe.

Independence

   The Spanish colonies won their independence between 1804 and 1824 in
   the South American Wars of Independence. Simón Bolívar of Venezuela and
   José de San Martín of Argentina led the independence struggle. Bolívar
   led a great army southward while San Martín led an army across the
   Andes Mountains, meeting up with General Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile,
   and marched northward. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil,
   Ecuador, where they cornered the royal army of Spain and forced its
   surrender.

   In Brazil, a Portuguese colony, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of
   Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the
   country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This
   was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal. Although Bolivar
   attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent
   politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as
   well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the
   Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific.

   A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
     * Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962
     * Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
     * Suriname, from Dutch control, in 1975

   French Guiana remains part of France as of 2006, and hosts the European
   Space Agency's principal spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.

Recent history

   The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the Cold War
   in the late 20th century. The governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
   and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military
   dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. Their governments detained tens
   of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or
   killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor).
   Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies.
   They placed their own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of
   "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s
   and 1990s, Peru suffered from internal conflicts (see Túpac Amaru
   Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and
   right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the
   1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and
   democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain
   common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the
   resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession
   has continued.

   International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently
   illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.

   In recent years South American governments have drifted to the left,
   with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil,
   Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and Uruguay. Despite
   the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist.

   With the founding of the South American Community of Nations, South
   America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans
   for political integration in the European Union style.

Economy

   As of 2002, South America's unemployment rate was 10.8 %.

   Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American
   countries, interest rates and thus investment remain high and low,
   respectively. Interest rates are usually double that of the United
   States. For example, interest rates are about 22 % in Venezuela and 23
   % in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which has been successfully
   implementing free market economic policies since the 1980s and
   increased its social spending since the return of democratic rule in
   the early 1990s. This has led to economic stability and interest rates
   in the low single digits.

   The South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide
   free trade zone to unite two existing free-trade organizations—
   Mercosur and the Andean Community.

   The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American
   nations is considered to be larger than in most other continents. In
   Venezuela, Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia and many other South American
   countries, the richest 20 % may own over 60 % of the nation's wealth,
   while the poorest 20 % may own less than 5 %. This wide gap can be seen
   in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums
   lie next to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.

   GDP per capita (PPP) 2005
   Rank in world  Country     GDP
                           per capita
   50            Argentina 14,109
   57            Chile     11,937
   65            Uruguay   10,028
   68            Brazil    8,584
   81            Colombia  7,565
   96            Venezuela 6,186
   97            Peru      5,983
   99            Suriname  5,683
   105           Guyana    4,612
   107           Paraguay  4,555
   114           Ecuador   4,316
   125           Bolivia   2,817

   Source: List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita

Culture

   Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. French Guiana also has a
   large number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with
   three major religions: Christianity in general, Hinduism, and Islam.

   Other branches of Christianity like Protestantism have grown steadily
   in South America. Jewish communities are found across South America,
   the largest are Sao Paulo, Brazil and Buenos Aires, Argentina. There
   are significant numbers of Armenian, Greek and other Eastern Orthodox
   churches founded by immigrants from the Middle East. There are
   Jehovah's Witnesses scattered everywhere in South America.

   Portuguese and Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The
   majority of South Americans (51%) speak Portuguese. However, most South
   American countries are Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the
   continent's Lusophones reside in Brazil. Among other languages used by
   many South Americans are:
     * Aymará in Bolivia and Peru.
     * Quechua in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and parts of Colombia, Argentina
       and Chile.
     * Guaraní in Paraguay.
     * English in Guyana.
     * Hindi in Suriname.
     * Dutch and Indonesian in Suriname.
     * Italian in certain pockets across southern South America in Brazil,
       Argentina and Uruguay
     * German in certain pockets in Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Paraguay.
     * Welsh remains spoken and written in the historic towns of Trelew
       and Rawson in recently settled parts of Patagonia, Argentina.
     * Mapudungun, in parts of Chile and certain pockets of Argentina.
     * Small cluster groups of Japanese speakers in Brazil, Peru and
       Ecuador.
     * Arabic speakers, often of Lebanese and Syrian descent in Arab
       communities of Brazil and Argentina.

   In some countries the continent's upper classes and well-educated
   people study English and French. There are small Spanish speaking areas
   of Southernmost Brazil, due to the proximity of Uruguay. South
   Americans are culturally enriched by the historic connection with
   Europe, especially Spain and " pop culture" impact from North America.
   ( the U.S.).

   South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most
   famous genres include samba from Brazil, tango from Argentina and
   Uruguay and cumbia from Colombia. Also well known is the non-commercial
   folk genre Nueva Canción movement which was founded in Argentina and
   Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America in various
   forms. The Peruvian coast is the creator of the fines guitar and cajon
   duos or trios in the most mestizo (mixed race) of South American
   rhythms such as the Zamacueca (from Lima), the Tondero (from Piura),
   the 18th century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse and the soulful
   Arequipan Yaravi

   In the late 20th century, Rock en Espanol emerged by young hipsters
   influenced by British pop and American rock in Argentina and Chile.
   However, this music genre has grown to include Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
   Venezuela and Brazil which has a Portuguese-language pop rock industry.

   Because of South America's ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on
   African, American Indian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is
   especially well-known for its West African-influenced cuisine.
   Argentines and Chileans regularly consume wine, while Argentina along
   with Paraguay, Uruguay and people in southern Chile and Brazil enjoy a
   sip of Mate a regional gourd cultivated for its drink. Pisco is a
   distilled liquor enjoyed in Peru and Chile.

People

   Ethnic groups and indigenous peoples of South America include:
   * Alacalufe
   * Atacameños
   * Aymara
   * Africans
   * Awá
   * Banawa
   * Caiapos
   * Chibcha
   * Cocama
   * Diaguitas
   * Chayahuita
   * Enxet

                  * European descendants,
                    especially from Spain, Portugal, Italy and Germany.
                  * Ge
                  * Guaraní
                  * Jivaroan
                  * Juris
                  * Mapuche
                  * Mestizo

                                                                     * Pehuenche
                                                                     * Quechuas
                                                                     * Shipibo
                                                                     * Xucuru
                                                                     * Urarina
                                                                     * Yagua
                                                                     * Zaparos

   Urarina shaman, 1988
   Enlarge
   Urarina shaman, 1988

   Indigenous peoples, such as the Urarina of Amazonia, make up the
   majority of the population in Peru and Bolivia, and are a significant
   element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this
   include Argentina and Uruguay. At least three of the Amerindian
   languages ( Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in Bolivia, and
   Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national
   languages.

Territories

   The countries in this table are categorised according to the scheme for
   geographic regions and subregions used by the United Nations, and data
   included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they
   differ, provisos are clearly indicated.
   Name of territory,
   with flag Area
   (km²) Population
   (1 July 2005 est.) Population density
   (per km²) Capital
   Argentina Argentina 2,766,890 39,537,943 14.3 Buenos Aires
   Bolivia Bolivia 1,098,580 8,857,870 8.1 La Paz, Sucre
   Brazil Brazil 8,514,877 187,550,726 22.0 Brasília
   Chile Chile 756,950 15,980,912 21.1 Santiago
   Colombia Colombia 1,138,910 42,954,279 37.7 Bogotá
   Ecuador Ecuador 283,560 13,363,593 47.1 Quito
   Falkland Islands Falkland Islands (UK) 12,173 2,967 0.24 Stanley
   French Guiana French Guiana (France) 91,000 195,506 2.1 Cayenne
   Guyana Guyana 214,970 765,283 3.6 Georgetown
   Paraguay Paraguay 406,750 6,347,884 15.6 Asunción
   Peru Peru 1,285,220 27,925,628 21.7 Lima
   South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands South Georgia and
   South Sandwich Islands (UK) 3,093 — — Grytviken
   Suriname Suriname 163,270 438,144 2.7 Paramaribo
   Uruguay Uruguay 176,220 3,415,920 19.4 Montevideo
   Venezuela Venezuela 912,050 25,375,281 27.8 Caracas
   Central America:
   Panama Panama 75,517 3,232,000 21.3 Panama City
   Total 17,846,948 371,814,437 20.8

   Notes:
    1. ^ O'Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World
       History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp. 25
    2. ^ O'Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World
       History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp. 25
    3. ^ O'Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World
       History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp. 25
    4. ^ La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia; Sucre is the
       judicial seat.
    5. ^ Includes Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean, a Chilean territory
       frequently reckoned in Oceania. Santiago is the administrative
       capital of Chile; Valparaíso is the site of legislative meetings.
    6. ^ Claimed by Argentina.
    7. ^ Also claimed by Argentina, the South Georgia and the South
       Sandwich Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean are commonly
       associated with Antarctica (due to proximity) and have no permanent
       population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100
       researchers and visitors.
    8. ^ Continental region as per UN categorisations/map; depending on
       definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and
       Tobago have territory in one or both of South and North America.
    9. ^ Panama is generally considered a transcontinental country in
       Central America (UN region) and South America; population and area
       figures are for South American portion only, east of the Panama
       Canal.

   Sources: GeoHive: The population of continents, regions and countries

Usage

   Among people in some English-speaking countries, there is a tendency to
   confuse the linguistic and geographic divisions of the Americas: thus,
   Mexico, some Central American and Caribbean territories, despite their
   location in North America, are mistakenly included in South America.
   The term Latin America is correctly used when referring to those
   territories whose official or national languages come from Latin
   (namely Portuguese, Spanish, and French). Conversely, Anglo-America is
   used to refer to areas whose major languages are Germanic (namely
   English) such as Guyana, Suriname, Belize, Jamaica, and much of the
   West Indies. Similarly, areas where English is prominent are considered
   part of the Anglosphere.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
