   #copyright

Skiing

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Sports

   Alpine skier carving a turn on piste
   Alpine skier carving a turn on piste
   Members of the U.S. Air Force skiing (and snowboarding) at Keystone
   Resort's 14th Annual SnoFest
   Members of the U.S. Air Force skiing (and snowboarding) at Keystone
   Resort's 14th Annual SnoFest
   Downhill Ski Racing
   Downhill Ski Racing

   Skiing (technically snow skiing) is the activity of gliding over snow
   using skis (originally wooden planks, now usually made from fibreglass
   or related composites) strapped to the feet with ski bindings.
   Originally used primarily for transportation, snow skiing evolved into
   a popular recreational and competitive activity during the 20th
   century. The sport consists of many variations, each of which fits into
   one of the major categories of alpine skiing, Nordic skiing, or
   telemark skiing.

History

   Skiing evolved gradually from snowshoeing and originally was a
   practical way of getting from one place to another in the cold winter.
   Early forms of skiing resembled today's Nordic, or cross-country,
   style.

   The Norwegian Sondre Norheim is often called the "father of modern
   skiing". In the 19th century, Norheim invented bindings that enabled
   the skier to do turns while skiing down hills. This form of skiing was
   called Slalom (sla låm, Norwegian dialect expression for a difficult
   track) by Norheim and his contemporaries. This form of skiing is now
   referred to as Telemark skiing or telemarking.

   The invention of firmer bindings to anchor the skier's feet to the ski,
   likely by Austrian Mathias Zdarsky, enabled the skier to turn more
   effectively and led to the development of Alpine, or Downhill, skiing.

   Shortly thereafter, in the early 20th century, Austrian Hannes
   Schneider pioneered the idea of rotating the body to help steer the
   skis. Soon this Arlberg technique, named for his home region, spread
   around the world and helped make skiing a popular recreational
   activity.

Types of skiing

   Skiing is a pastime which has brought together all cultures of today.
   Many different types of skiing are popular, especially in colder
   climates, and many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by
   the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Ski
   Federation (FIS), and other sporting organizations. Skiing is most
   visible to the public during the Winter Olympic Games where it is a
   major sport.

   In skiing's traditional core regions in the snowy parts of Scandinavia,
   as well as in places such as Alaska, both recreational and competitive
   skiing is as likely to refer to the cross-country variants as to the
   internationally downhill variants.

   For most people worldwide, the term "skiing" refers to alpine skiing
   where one visits a ski resort, purchases a lift ticket, dons
   cold-weather clothing, skis, ski boots and ski poles, and embarks on a
   chairlift, gondola lift, or other means of mechanical uphill transport.
   Upon reaching the summit, the skier disembarks from the ski lift and
   travels downhill, propelled by gravity, usually along a marked route
   known as a piste, "run," "trail," or "slope". Most ski resorts use
   mechanical equipment to "groom," or pack down and smooth, the snow
   surface on certain ski trails. Grooming is normally associated with
   trails of lesser difficulty. Off- piste skiing includes skiing in
   unmarked or unpatrolled areas either within the ski resort's boundaries
   or in the backcountry, frequently amongst trees (" glade skiing"),
   usually in pursuit of fresh fallen snow, known as powder.

   Skiing or snowboarding outside a ski resort's boundaries, also known as
   out of bounds skiing, is illegal in some ski resorts, due to the danger
   of avalanches on the un-patrolled areas; or the cost of
   search-and-rescue for lost or overdue skiers. France and Canada are two
   of the few countries generally permitting this activity. In the United
   States, out of bounds skiing regulations vary by ski area; many ski
   resorts prohibit it and some simply post warning signs that skiers are
   leaving the patrolled ski area boundaries. However, lost or overdue
   backcountry travellers are usually held responsible for the cost of
   search-and-rescue service if uninsured. Backcountry skiers traveling in
   steep terrain prone to avalanches are encouraged to take avalanche
   training, travel with other experienced people, and carry special
   equipment for self-rescue. It is recommended that skiers make the local
   ski patrol aware of where they are going if they stray off-piste in
   case of avalanches or bad weather that could put skiers in danger.
   Emergency medical technicians evacuating an injured skier from a ski
   area
   Emergency medical technicians evacuating an injured skier from a ski
   area

   Skiing techniques are difficult to master, and accordingly there are
   ski schools that teach everything from the basics of turning and
   stopping safely to more advanced carving, racing, mogul or "bump"
   skiing and newer freestyle techniques. There are two primary types of
   downhill skiing -- "telemark" and "alpine." Telemark skiers use
   flexible ski boots, either leather or plastic, and do not have their
   heels locked to the skis. Alpine skiers use stiffer plastic,
   non-flexible boots and have their heels locked to the skis with
   releaseable bindings. The venue, speed and technical difficulty
   associated with the sport can lead to collisions, accidents,
   hypothermia and other injury or illness, occasionally including death.
   Regional Ski Patrol organizations, such as the National Ski Patrol in
   the U.S., exist as a voluntary organization to provide guidance, help,
   medical assistance and emergency rescue to those in need of it.

   For beginning skiers learning under a trained instructor, skiing speeds
   are low, the terrain is not steep and is often well-manicured, and the
   risks are relatively low. For extreme skiers, testing their expert
   abilities against ever more challenging terrain, the risks may be much
   higher.

   In addition to its role in recreation and sport, skiing is also used as
   a means of transport by the military, and many armies train troops for
   ski warfare. Ski troops played a key role in retaining Finnish
   independence from Russia during the Winter War, and from Germany during
   the Lapland War, although the use of ski troops was recorded by the
   Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century. The sport of
   Biathlon was developed from military skiing patrols.

   Another type of skiing called Jib skiing or New freestyle is a new
   style of skiing that started in the late 1990s. In this type of skiing,
   skiers use jumps also called kickers,or rails to do urban style aerial
   tricks.

Skiing for people with disabilities

   Snowbird ski resort
   Snowbird ski resort

   Downhill skiing for people with disabilities is both a recreational
   pastime and a competitive sport open to those with any manner of
   cognitive and/or physical disabilities. Adaptations include the use of
   outriggers, ski tip retention devices, sit-skis like monoskis and
   bi-skis, brightly colored guide bibs, ski guides, and inter-skier
   communication systems or audible clues for blind skiers. Recreational
   skiing programs for people with disabilities exist at mountains across
   the globe. In the northeastern United States, Maine Handicapped Skiing
   is one of the largest, operating at Sunday River ski resort, Other New
   England resorts with adaptive skiing programs include: Loon Mountain,
   Waterville Valley, and Mount Sunapee. In the western part of the United
   States, the National Sports Centre for the Disabled at Winter Park
   Resort near Denver, Colorado attracts both first-timers and world-class
   disabled athletes from Europe, Asia, and North America. Currently the
   International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and the International Ski
   Federation (FIS) sanction a number of regional, national, and
   international disabled skiing events, most notably a World Cup circuit,
   a Disabled Alpine Skiing World Championships, and the Paralympic Winter
   Games. Skiing for people with disabilities became popular after World
   War II with the return of injured veterans.

Ski trail ratings

North America

   Man skiing slope overlooking Lake Tahoe
   Man skiing slope overlooking Lake Tahoe

   In North America, a colour–shape rating system is used to indicate the
   difficulty of trails (otherwise known as slopes or pistes).

   There is no governing body that assigns difficulty ratings to ski
   trails. Instead, ski resorts assign ratings to their own trails,
   marking a given trail according to its relative difficulty when
   compared with other trails at that resort. As a result,
   identically-pitched trails at different resorts can have different
   ratings. Some skiers and snowboarders may interpret this as
   manipulation of ratings of their slopes to appeal to as wide an
   audience as possible; in fact, it is an attempt by ski areas to conform
   to the trail rating conventions.

   Although slope gradient is the primary consideration in assigning a
   trail rating, other factors come into play — including trail width,
   normal snow conditions and whether or not the resort regularly grooms
   the trail.

   CAPTION: Ski Trail Difficulty Ratings in North America

   Trail Rating Symbol Level of difficulty Description
   Green Circle Green Circle Easiest The easiest pistes at a mountain.
   Green Circle trails are generally wide and groomed, typically with
   slope gradients ranging from 6% to 25% (a 100% slope is a 45 degree
   angle).
   Blue Square Blue Square Intermediate Intermediate difficulty slopes
   with grades commonly ranging from 25% to 40%. These slopes are usually
   groomed. Blue Square runs comprise the bulk of pistes at most ski
   areas, and are usually among the most heavily-trafficked.
   Black Diamond Black Diamond Difficult Amongst the most difficult at a
   given mountain. Black Diamond trails tend to be steep (typically 40%
   and up) and may or may not be groomed, though the introduction of
   winch-cats has made the grooming of steep slopes both possible and more
   frequent.
   Double Black Diamond Double Black Diamond Expert These trails are even
   more difficult than Black Diamond, due to exceptionally steep slopes
   and other hazards such as narrow trails, exposure to wind, and the
   presence of obstacles such as steep drop-offs or trees. They are
   intended only for the most experienced skiers.

   This trail rating is fairly new; by the 1980s, technological
   improvements in trail construction and maintenance, coupled with
   intense marketing competition, led to the creation of a Double Black
   Diamond rating.
   Variations Blue Square/Black Diamond Various Variations such as
   doubling a symbol to indicate increased difficulty, or combining two
   different symbols to indicate intermediate difficulty are occasionally
   used. One example is a diamond overlapping a square to indicate a trail
   rating between a Blue Square and a Black Diamond. The combination of
   symbols is comparatively rare at U.S. ski areas; most ski resorts stick
   to the standard 4-symbol progression.
   Terrain Parks Terrain Park Various Terrain parks are whole or portions
   of trails that can offer a variety of jumps, half-pipes, and other
   special "extreme" sporting obstacles beyond traditional moguls. The
   trails are typically represented by an orange rectangle with rounded
   corners.

   Usually, the terrain park will carry its own trail rating, indicating
   the level of challenge. A terrain park with a Black Diamond or Double
   Black Diamond rating would contain greater and more challenging
   obstacles than a park with a Blue Square rating.

Europe

   In Europe, pistes are classified by a similar, colour-coded system,
   although shapes are not always used (sometimes all ratings are
   circles). The ratings are:

   Green
          (Spain, France,Scandinavia) Learning or "Beginner" slopes. These
          are usually not marked trails, but tend to be large open, gently
          sloping areas at the base of the ski area.

   Blue
          An easy trail, similar to the North American Green Circle, and
          are almost always groomed, or on so shallow a slope as not to
          need it.

   Red
          An intermediate slope. Steeper, or narrower than a blue slope,
          these are usually groomed, unless the narrowness of the trail
          prohibits it.

   Black
          An expert slope. Steep, may or may not be groomed, or may be
          groomed for moguls. "Black" can be a very wide classification,
          ranging from a slope marginally more difficult than a "Red" to
          very steep avalanche chutes like the infamous Couloirs of
          Courchevel. France tends to have a higher limit between red and
          black.

   Orange
          (Austria, Switzerland, certain other areas) Extremely difficult.

   Double-black
          (Scandinavia) Extremely difficult.

   Yellow
          In recent years, many resorts reclassified some black slopes to
          yellow slopes. This signifies a skiroute, an ungroomed and
          unpatrolled slope which is actually off-piste skiing in a marked
          area. Famous examples are the Stockhorn area in Zermatt and the
          Tortin slopes in Verbier. In Austria, skiroutes are usually
          marked with orange squares instead.

   Alpine slope classification in Europe is less rigidly tied to slope
   angle than in North America. A lower angle slope may be classified as
   more difficult than a steeper slope if, for instance, it is narrower
   and/or requires better skiing ability to carry speed through flatter
   sections while controlling speed through sharp hairpin turns,
   off-camber slope angles or exposed rock.

Japan

   Japan uses a color-coded system, but shapes do not usually accompany
   them. Some resorts, mainly those catering to foreigners, use the North
   American or European colour-coding system, adding to the confusion.
   When in doubt, check the map legend. The usual ratings are:

   Green
          Beginner slopes. These are usually near the base of the
          mountain, although some follow switchback routes down from the
          top.

   Red
          Intermediate slopes. At most ski areas in Japan, these
          constitute the majority of the slopes (40° to 60°, depending on
          how the slopes are accounted).

   Black
          Expert slopes. These are the steepest and most difficult slopes
          at the ski area. The difficulty of these compared to
          like-classified slopes at other ski areas is heavily dependent
          on the target audience.

   Japan has more than 1000 ski areas (115 in Nagano Prefecture alone),
   many of them small and family-oriented, so comparisons between slope
   classifications in Japan and "equivalent" slopes in Europe or North
   America are minimal.

Snow and weather

   This terrain park begins with three jumps, each with a variety of
   entries.
   This terrain park begins with three jumps, each with a variety of
   entries.

   Skiers and snowboarders can encounter a wide range of snow and weather
   conditions, in part due to the location of specific resorts and global
   weather patterns at the time.

   Natural snow ranges in consistency from very light and fluffy to dense
   and heavy, depending upon atmospheric conditions as it falls. Snow is
   often measured by moisture content, or the amount of water in a given
   volume of snow. Some areas of the United States' Rocky Mountains, for
   example, can receive considerable amounts of snow with moisture content
   as low as three to five percent; in the Northeastern United States and
   the Alps, moisture content is more typically 15 percent or more. Snow
   made by mechanical snowmaking often has moisture content of 35 percent
   or more.

   Temperatures play a critical role in snow moisture content, but other
   atmospheric conditions are also relevant. Air currents and other
   factors determine snow crystal shape; obviously, the farther apart
   given snow crystals are, the more air is contained in the newly settled
   snow, resulting in lower net moisture content in a given volume of
   snow. Snow produced mechanically typically has high relative moisture
   content and low amounts of loft because the crystal structure resembles
   small, dense pellets.

   Even the fluffiest snow has mass, and snow typically settles under its
   own weight after time. This is one reason why untouched snow measuring
   20 cm on the day it falls might be measured at 15 cm the day following.
   Snow is also subject to sublimation — a process by which water can go
   directly from a frozen state to a gaseous state without first melting.
   It is this same process that ultimately makes ice cubes shrink in a
   freezer.

   There are other factors that impact snow beyond its moisture content
   and crystal shape, however. Snow is impacted by wind, sunlight, skier
   traffic, ambient air temperature, relative humidity and grooming
   equipment; all of these factors combine to change snow crystal shape
   and density over time.

   Thus, skiers and snowboarders typically encounter a wide range of snow
   conditions over the course of a season. Some of the more common
   conditions include:
     * Powder: Light, fluffy snow, found during and immediately after
       snowfall. Skiing and snowboarding in deep powder snow is a favorite
       among skilled, experienced skiers and snowboarders; sometimes known
       as "powderhounds." Because Western snow generally has a lower
       moisture content, western powder is lighter and easier to ski than
       heavier eastern powder. Utah snow is especially known for being
       extremely light and dry.

     * Packed Powder: Packed Powder is powder snow that has been
       compressed, either by means of mechanical snow grooming apparatus
       or skier traffic. The term can also be used to describe snow that
       has been properly made with adequate control over snow-making
       apparatus. This snow condition is favored by beginners and the
       majority of recreational skiers, in that it tends to be relatively
       forgiving, easy to turn upon, and requires less skill to negotiate
       than powder snow.

     * Granular snow: Granular snow crystals are small pellets. Depending
       on sun and temperature conditions, it may be wet granular snow —
       meaning that there is a considerable amount of unfrozen water in
       it, or loose granular snow, which has no unfrozen water. Wet
       granular snow will form a snowball; loose granular snow will not.
       Wet granular conditions are often found in the springtime. Loose
       granular conditions are generally produced when wet granular snow
       has re-frozen and then been broken up by snowgrooming apparatus.

     * Corn snow: Corn snow is the result of repeated daily thaws and
       nightly re-freezing of the surface. Because of the thaw-refreeze
       cycle, snow crystal shapes change over time, producing crystal
       shapes somewhat akin to wet granular, but larger. True corn snow is
       a delight to ski or ride.

     * Ice: skiers and snowboarders typically regard any snow condition
       that is very hard as "ice." In fact, true ice conditions are
       comparatively rare. Much of what is perceived to be ice is actually
       a frozen granular condition — wet granular snow that has refrozen
       to form a very dense surface. Telling the difference is
       comparatively easy; if one can get a ski pole to stand up in it,
       the surface is likely to be more of a frozen granular surface than
       an icy one — and while it's certainly not as enjoyable as many
       other snow conditions, skilled skiers and snowboarders can
       successfully negotiate it. In fact, it's a preferred condition
       among racers, in that the surface tends to be quite fast and race
       course conditions tend to remain more consistent during the race,
       with fewer ruts developing on the course. Another form of icy
       condition can be found at higher elevation resorts in the Rocky
       Mountains and in Europe; direct sunlight can melt the top layers of
       snow crystals and subsequent freezing and produce a very shiny,
       slick surface.

     * Crust: Crusts are extremely challenging conditions. A crust
       condition exists when soft snow is covered by a harder upper layer
       upon the surface. This crust can be created by freezing rain
       (precipitation formed in warmer upper levels of the atmosphere,
       falling into a temperature inversion at which surface temperatures
       are below freezing, and freezing on contact with the ground), by
       direct sunlight, and by wind loading which packs down the upper
       layers of the snowpack but leaves lower layers more or less
       unaffected.

     * Spring Conditions: a catch-all term ski areas use to describe
       conditions when numerous different surface types can be found on
       the mountain — usually in the later part of the season, although
       the term is sometimes used during an extended midwinter thaw. The
       term also generally reflects the presence of bare spots and/or
       areas of thin cover. With spring conditions, the snow is usually
       firm in early morning (even reaching frozen granular status if left
       ungroomed), breaking a softer corn or wet granular surface mid-day,
       and is often very soft and mushy in afternoon (many skiers refer to
       this type of snow condition as "mashed potatoes," due to its
       heaviness). In some instances when the snow is untracked, sun
       baked, slightly dirty, with the consistency of a snow cone, it is
       called "tecate powder." The speed with which conditions change on a
       given spring day is directly related to the exposure of the slope
       relative to the sun. East- and south-facing slopes tend to soften
       first; west-facing slopes generally soften by mid-day. North-facing
       slopes may hold on to their overnight snow conditions throughout
       the day.

Trivia

   "Skiing" is one of the few words in the English language that contains
   two "i"s in a row.

Skiing topics

   Terrain park feature for the daring
   Terrain park feature for the daring

Types of skiing

     * Alpine skiing (also known as downhill skiing)
     * Backcountry skiing (also known as off-piste skiing)
     * Biathlon
     * Cross-country skiing (one style of Nordic skiing)
     * Artificial Dry Ski Slope skiing
     * Disabled alpine skiing
     * Disabled Nordic skiing
     * Extreme skiing
     * Freeskiing
     * Freestyle skiing
     * Heliskiing
     * Newschool skiing
     * Night skiing
     * Nordic combined
     * Telemark skiing (skiing downhill on Nordic equipment)
     * Speed skiing
     * Skijoring
     * Ski jumping ( Nordic jumping)
     * Ski mountaineering
     * Ski touring
     * Snowkiting

Turning techniques

     * Stem techniques
          + The Snowplough - (also known as the wedge) - see snowplough
            turn
          + The Stem Christie
     * Parallel turn
     * Carve turn
     * Telemark turn
     * Pivot turn
     * Jump turn

Equipment

     * Skis
     * Ski bindings
     * Ski boots
     * Ski poles
     * Ski wax
     * Ski suit
     * Ski helmet
     * Ski gloves
     * Sunglasses/ ski goggles
     * Specialized Alpine touring equipment

Competition events

     * Winter Olympic Games
     * The Honda Ski Tour
     * Winter Paralympic Games
     * Four Hills Tournament
     * Winter X Games

Alpine events

     * Alpine Skiing World Cup
     * Alpine World Skiing Championships
     * Slalom
     * Giant slalom
     * Super Giant Slalom
     * Downhill
     * Alpine skiing combined
     * Speed Skiing

Freestyle events

     * Aerials
     * Moguls

Nordic events

     * Biathlon
     * Nordic combined
     * Ski jumping
     * Cross-country skiing

Skiing organizations

   International organizations:
     * International Biathlon Union (IBU)
     * International Free Skiers Association (IFSA)
     * International Ski Federation (FIS)
     * International Ski Instructors Association (ISIA)
     * International Skiing History Association (ISHA)

   National organizations:
     * Iran Ski Federation
     * US National Ski Hall of Fame
     * Professional Ski Instructors of America
     * Swiss Ski Association (in French and German)
     * British Association of Snowsport Instructors
     * Ski Club of Great Britain
     * United States Ski and Snowboard Association
     * Croatian Ski Association / Hrvatski skijaški savez (HSS)
     * National Ski Patrol
     * Canadian Ski Instructors' Alliance

Ski safety

   Here are some valuable tips to consider before going out skiing.

   First, skiiers should be fit for this activity, as injury could occur
   easily. Just like other sports, good skiiers warm up before starting.
   This also reduces the probability that injury will occur.

   Assistance is available. If a skiier feels that they are not
   experienced or capable enough to safely ski, there are almost always
   experts and instructors available for assistance and instruction.
   Skiing can be a dangerous activity, so knowledge of skiing's
   fundamentals is imperative. Knowing one's limitations is the first step
   in NOT getting injured.

   Safe skiing equipment is a must. All equipment should be in good
   condition and properly fitted.

   Here are some tips on what to bring for skiing:
    1. Gloves or mittens to keep hands warm.
    2. Goggles or sunglasses to protect eyes from harm.
    3. Fleece top or sweater; the mid-layer or insulating garment.
    4. Parka, anorak, or shell.
    5. Ski poles, measured for proper fit.
    6. Thermal underwear and ski socks.
    7. Helmets may reduce the risk of head injuries. Research into helmet
       usage is ongoing; some studies suggest that helmets are of minimal
       value in high-speed accidents, and that some skiers may take
       additional risks while wearing them.
    8. Boots which are sized properly when worn over one pair of warm
       socks.
    9. Water-resistant and windproof pants or salopettes.
   10. Skis that are the right length for one's height and ability,
       mounted with ski bindings properly adjusted for one's height/weight
       and ability.

     * Avalanches
     * Cornice (climbing)
     * Crevasses
     * Mountain rescue
     * Ski patrol

Ski areas and resorts

     * Ski resorts
     * List of ski areas and resorts
     * National Ski Areas Association
     * Luxury resorts

Ski lifts

     * Aerial tramway (or cable car)
     * Gondola lift
     * Telemix
     * Chairlift
     * Detachable chairlift (often a higher speed chairlift)
     * Funitel
     * Funicular
     * Rope tows & handle tows
     * Platter lift (or button lift)
     * J-bar lift
     * T-bar lift
     * Magic carpet

Other

     * History of skiing
     * Artificial ski slope
     * Indoor ski slope
          + Ski Simulators
     * Piste
     * Ski resort
     * Ski school
     * Ski season
     * Ski warfare
     * Snow
          + Snow cannon
          + Ice
     * Snowcat (piste basher)
     * Physics of skiing
     * Après-ski

Health and injuries

     * Altitude sickness
     * Injuries
          + Anterior cruciate ligament
          + Fracture
     * First aid
          + Wilderness first aid
     * Frost bite
     * Hypothermia
     * Windburn
     * Physical fitness
          + Exercise
     * Snow blindness
     * Ski sickness
     * List of famous skiing deaths
     * Shin-bang

Ski videos and movies

   Skiing and snowboarding video and movies as a genre, emerged with such
   classics as Otto Lang (film producer) Ski Flight, Warren Miller, Dirk
   Collins, and XCZONE.TV leading Nordic Skiing Producers.

Related sports

     * Grass skiing
     * Heliskiing
     * Monoskiing
     * Skiboarding
     * Skwal
     * Snowboarding
     * Snowkiting
     * Snowshoe walking
     * Sports
     * Water skiing
     * Winter sport

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiing"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
