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Religious Society of Friends

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements,
traditions and organizations

   The Religious Society of Friends (commonly known as Quakers) began in
   England in the 17th century by people who were dissatisfied with the
   existing denominations and sects of Christianity. Traditionally George
   Fox has been credited as the founder or the most important early
   figure. The Society of Friends is counted among the historic peace
   churches. Since its beginnings in England, Quakerism has spread to
   other countries, chiefly Bolivia, Guatemala, Kenya, Peru, Cuba and the
   United States. The number of Quakers is relatively small (approximately
   350,000 worldwide), although there are places, such as Pennsylvania
   (particularly Philadelphia); Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho;
   Birmingham, England; and Greensboro, North Carolina in which Quaker
   influence is concentrated.

   Unlike other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious
   Society of Friends has tended toward little hierarchical structure, and
   no creeds.

   The various branches have widely divergent beliefs and practices, but
   the central concept to many Friends may be the " Inner Light" or "that
   of God within" each of us. Accordingly, individual Quakers may develop
   individual religious beliefs arising from individual conscience and
   revelation coming from "God within"; further, Quakers are obliged to
   live by such individual religious beliefs and inner revelations.

   Many Quakers feel their faith does not fit within traditional Christian
   categories of Catholic, Orthodox or Protestant, but is an expression of
   another way of experiencing God.

   Although Quakers throughout most of their history and in most parts of
   the world today consider Quakerism to be a Christian movement, some
   Friends (principally in the select Meetings in the United States and
   the United Kingdom) now consider themselves universalist, agnostic,
   atheist, pagan, or nontheist, or do not accept any religious label.
   This phenomenon has become increasingly evident during the latter half
   of the 20th century and the opening years of the 21st century, and is
   still controversial among Friends.

Beliefs and practices of Friends

Experiencing God

   George Fox and the other early Quaker preachers believed that direct
   experience of God was available to all people, without mediation (e.g.
   through hired clergy, or through outward sacraments). Fox described
   this by writing that "Christ has come to teach his people himself."

   Modern Friends often express this belief in many ways, including "that
   of God in Everyone", "the Inner light", "the inward Christ", "the
   spirit of Christ within." Early Friends more often used terms such as
   "Truth", "the Seed", and "the Pure Principle", expecting that each
   person would be transformed as Christ formed in them.

   Since Friends believe that everyone contains "that of God" within, much
   of the Quaker perspective is based on trying to hear what God is saying
   and to allow the Spirit free action in the heart. Isaac Penington wrote
   in 1670: "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but
   this is the thing - to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..."

Mysticism

   Quakerism is often termed a mystical religion because of its emphasis
   on the personal experience of God rather than logic and reasoned
   theology. It differs from other mystical religions in at least two
   important ways.

   First, Quaker mysticism is primarily group-oriented rather than focused
   on the individual. The Friends' traditional meeting for worship (see
   Unprogrammed worship below) may be considered an expression of that
   group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting together listen
   for the Spirit of God, speaking when the Spirit moves.

   Second, Quaker mysticism includes a strong emphasis on its
   outwardly-directed witness. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the
   world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action.
   Action, in turn, leads to greater spiritual understanding — both by
   individuals and by the Meeting as a whole.

The Bible

   Early Friends believed that Christ, instead of the Bible, is the Word
   of God; for example, Robert Barclay wrote in this Apology that the
   scriptures "are only a declaration of the fountain, and not the
   fountain itself, therefore they are not to be esteemed the principal
   ground of all Truth and knowledge, nor yet the adequate primary rule of
   faith and manners". Similarly, George Fox recounted an incident in his
   Journal in which a minister claimed that the scriptures were
   authoritative, Fox "...was commanded to tell them God did not dwell in
   temples made with hands. But I told them what it was, namely, the Holy
   Spirit, by which the holy men of God gave forth the scriptures, whereby
   opinions, religions and judgements were to be tried; for it led into
   all Truth, and so gave the knowledge of all Truth".

   Early Friends believed that Christ would never lead them in ways that
   contradicted the Bible, and so making the Bible subordinate to the
   spirit prevented conflicts between Friends' leadings and their
   understanding of the Bible.

   As time passed, conflicts between what the Bible appeared to teach and
   how many Friends believed they were being led by the Spirit began to
   arise. Some Friends decided that in these cases the Bible should be
   authoritative; for example, the Richmond Declaration of 1887 declared,
   among other things, that any action "contrary to the Scriptures, though
   under profession of the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, must be
   reckoned and accounted a mere delusion". Today most Evangelical Friends
   believe the Bible is authoritative, for the Bible is the word of God
   inspired by God's Spirit. Many teach that if personal leadings are
   truly from God's Holy Spirit, they will not contradict what God's
   Spirit has already said in the Bible.

   Other Friends, partly under the influence of movements such as liberal
   Protestantism, decided that it was possible to be truly led in ways
   contrary to scripture, and that in such cases scripture should give
   way. Still other Friends rejected (or neglected) the Bible altogether;
   hence in many liberal (usually unprogrammed) Friends meetings one might
   encounter non-Christian Friends or those who question some of the
   traditional doctrines of Christianity. In nearly all cases, modern
   Friends believe in the necessity of being continually guided by God.
   Divine revelation is therefore not restricted to the Bible, but rather
   continues even today; this doctrine is known as continuing revelation.

   A common set of practices emerged which spoke of key principles and
   beliefs held by Friends. These are "Testimonies", for Friends believe
   these important principles and practices should be expressed (testified
   as truth) among Friends as well as to others, in both words and deeds.
   (see Testimonies for a list and description of several testimonies.)
   Rooted in the immediate experience of the community of Friends, these
   Testimonies are based on what Friends believe are verified in the
   Bible, especially as described in the Gospels regarding the life and
   teachings of Jesus.

Creeds

   Quakerism has generally had no creed. George Fox dismissed theologians
   as "notionists", and modern Quakers are generally less concerned with
   theology, and more concerned with acting in accord with the leading of
   the Spirit than are many other faiths. Quakers have historically
   expressed a preference for understanding coming from God's Spirit over
   the knowledge derived from objective logic or systematic theology. This
   lack of a single set of authoritative doctrines has resulted in the
   development of a broad range of doctrines and beliefs among Friends,
   ranging from fundamentalist Christian to universalist, or even to
   nontheist.

   Most Friends believe a formal creed would be an obstacle — both to
   authentic listening and to the recognition of new insight. On the other
   hand, some Friends have enumerated and subscribed to a set of
   doctrines, such as the "Richmond Declaration" (a document composed by a
   conference of 95 mainly Orthodox Friends in 1887) or the "Beliefs of
   Friends" stated by Evangelical Friends International.

Sacraments

   Early Friends did not believe in the reliance upon practice of the
   outward rites and sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all
   the activities of one's life—all of life is sacred. They experienced
   baptism by the Holy Spirit as an inward, transforming experience and
   knew communion with Christ in the midst of gathered worship in the
   expectant silence. Thus they did not perform baptism as a rite of
   membership. Friends believe that any meal with others can be a form of
   communion and therefore have no such rite in their worship.

   At various times some individuals or small groups of Friends have
   published corrective cautions against adopting the prohibition of some
   rite as itself being creedal. The focus should be upon God as Present
   Teacher, rather than on some human ritual, or the absence of a ritual.
   Most Friends therefore do not prohibit rites or ceremonies, but they do
   counsel against allowing these human inventions to take the place of
   direct experience and leading by God.

Plainness

   Friends have practiced "plainness" in their dress and outward
   appearance as well as in their speech.

   Quakers traditionally wore plain clothes in order to address three
   concerns: the vanity and superiority associated with fanciness, the
   conformity associated with wearing the latest fashions, and the
   wastefulness of frequently buying new styles and other adornments. At
   one time this practice of plainness allowed other people to identify
   Friends easily. Many people are still familiar with the image of the
   Quaker man in a gray or brown suit with a flat broad-brimmed hat, and
   the Quaker woman in a plain dress and bonnet.

   After time, as fashions changed, the Quaker ideal of plain dress
   started to stand out against modern clothing. What once was "plain" in
   previous generations has become visually antiquated in the present day.
   As a result, the traditional forms of this practice were dropped by
   most Friends when they came to feel that they had become vain about
   their dress despite their intentions. However, some Friends continue
   the plain tradition in clothing and some in speech. While contemporary
   Friends rarely wear the traditional grey dress, some dress in a plain
   manner, buy only the clothes they need, buy clothing that is not
   produced by oppressing others (such as in "sweatshops"), and avoiding
   expensive designer items.

   Plainness in speech addressed other concerns: honesty, class
   distinction, and vestiges of paganism. These principles were put into
   practice by affirming rather than swearing oaths, setting fixed prices
   for goods, avoiding the use of honorific titles, using numbers rather
   than names for the days of the week and the months of the year, and
   using familiar forms for the second person pronoun.

   Like many aspects of Quaker life, the practice of plainness has evolved
   over time, although it is based on principles that have been a lasting
   part of Quaker thought. These principles are now part of the
   testimonies of simplicity, equality, and integrity.

Egalitarianism

   Quakers hold a strong sense of spiritual egalitarianism, including a
   belief in the spiritual equality of the sexes—which was remarkable for
   the mid-1600s. Both women and men were granted equal authority to speak
   in meetings for worship. George Fox's wife, Margaret Fell, was as vocal
   and literate as her husband, publishing several tracts in Quakerism's
   early days.

   The Friends' attitude towards egalitarianism was also demonstrated by
   their refusal to practice "hat honor"; meaning that Quakers refused to
   take their hats off or bow to anyone regardless of title or rank, and
   refused to address anyone with honorifics such as "Sir," "Madam," "Your
   Honor," or "Your Majesty." This testified to the Friends' understanding
   that, in the eyes of God, there was no hierarchy based on birth,
   wealth, or political power - such honours they reserved only for God.
   This was not considered by Friends to be anti-authoritarian in nature,
   but instead as a rebuke against human pretense and ego.

   Today, resistance to "hat honor" does not prevail as it once did--most
   hat customs are not practised in contemporary everyday life--and the
   individual Friend is left to decide whether or not to practice "hat
   honour" as a matter of conscience.

Education

   Friends favour education, as exemplified by their founding of many
   schools and colleges. Friends have often cautioned against the
   admission of education credentials as either a form of honoring humans
   instead of God or as a substitute for a relationship with God.

   Thus Friends have typically not conducted "ordinations" based on the
   credentials of individuals from seminaries or universities, but rather
   have "recorded" the ministers that God has created. Friends' tradition
   of promoting universal education stands as evidence that Friends have
   not typically engaged in anti-intellectualism.

Oaths and fair-dealing

   Early Friends believed that an important part of Jesus' message was how
   we treat our fellow human beings. They felt that honest dealing with
   others meant more than avoiding direct lies. Friends continue to
   believe that it is important not to mislead others, even if the words
   used are all technically truthful. Early Friends refused to swear
   oaths, even in courtrooms, believing that one must speak truth at all
   times, and the act of swearing to it implied different standards of
   truth with and without oaths. This doctrine is attributed to Jesus in
   the Sermon on the Mount (specifically Matthew 5:34-37).

   Some Friends have accepted the use of "affirmations" rather than oaths,
   believing that the problem with oaths is that by swearing an oath, you
   are admitting that you otherwise might not be expected to tell the
   truth.

   This testimony appeared to conflict with other testimonies when Friends
   engaged in systematic law-breaking by participating in the "Underground
   Railroad" in the United States before the mid-nineteenth century. While
   the participation of Friends is widely celebrated, other Friends of the
   time held that they could not do anything that would mislead even a
   cruel slave owner seeking the return of an escaped slave. These Friends
   cautioned against deciding for ourselves what truth should be, rather
   than simply stating only what we know.

   This conflict points to the role of testimonies as tools with which
   Friends may try their thoughts and actions rather than as creeds.

Quaker terminology

   Though the practices of plain dress and speech made them known as a
   "peculiar people", for the most part modern Quakers dress and speak in
   a manner indistinguishable from others. Some Friends do retain the use
   of "thou" and "thee" with other Friends. Friends also use certain
   specialized terms when describing their theology and practices:

   Birthright Friend
          a historical term for those Friends born into families that are
          members of a Friends Meeting. (This is no longer officially
          recognized by most Friends.)

   Clearness
          a process undergone to discern the true leading of the Spirit of
          God, especially in ambiguous or complicated situations. Friends
          often work with Clearness committees when struggling with a
          difficult issue.

   Concern
          Anyone may feel that they are called by God to serve in a
          special way. Friends consider carrying out a concern to be a
          form of ministry. Often there may be a meeting for clearness to
          test the concern after which the meeting may well support the
          person in their concern. Many well-known organisations, such as
          the American Friends Service Committee, Don't Make a Wave
          Committee (the predecessor organisation to Greenpeace), Oxfam
          and Amnesty International, have been founded by Friends ‘acting
          under concern’. Elizabeth Fry was acting under concern when she
          began her work in prison reform.

   Convinced Friend
          a historical term for those Friends who were not born into
          Quaker families, but who came to Friends because of the Truth of
          Quaker teaching and practice. The process of deciding to become
          a Friend is known as "convincement."

   Gathered Meeting
          A meeting for worship, where those present feel that they were
          particularly in tune with the leadings of the Spirit.

   Facing Benches
          Older meetinghouses often have benches on a raised platform
          which face the rest of the congregation where Weighty Friends
          who might be expected to speak would sit.

   Hold in the Light
          To recognize concern in one's self for another person or
          situation. This is often considered to be synonymous with
          praying for someone.

   I hope so
          (British term) during a meeting for worship for business, when
          the clerk asks those present if they agree with a minute,
          Friends will usually say “I hope so” rather than “yes”. It is
          meant in the sense of “I hope that this is the true guidance of
          the Holy Spirit”.

   Lay down
          the action properly taken upon a committee, meeting or ministry
          that is no longer needed, "to lay down" a meeting is to disband
          it.

   Leading
          a course of action, belief or conviction that a Friend feels is
          divinely inspired.

   Ministry
          the act of speaking during a meeting for worship. (Many Friends
          use the term more broadly to mean living their testimonies in
          everyday life). "Vocal" or "proclamational" refer to ministries
          that are verbal.

   Notion
          An unfounded, unspiritual position. (Used by George Fox, often
          to refer to teachings or doctrines that were expressed but not
          fully understood or experienced)

   Proceed as a Way Opens
          to undertake a service or course of action without prior clarity
          about all the details but with confidence that divine guidance
          will make these apparent and assure an appropriate outcome.

   Recorded minister
          A person whose vocal ministry (spoken contribution in meeting) -
          or another spiritual gift - is recognised as helpful and
          probably faithful to Divine leading, by the body of Friends to
          which they belong and formally recorded by that body. Not all
          Friends' organisations record ministers. Other Friends have
          adopted a defined process prerequisite for "recording."

   Right ordering
          has to do with proper conduct of a meeting for business. The
          term is often used in the negative, that is, if someone senses
          that something about the conduct of the meeting is not proper,
          they may object that ‘this meeting is not in right ordering’.

   Speaks to my condition or Friend speaks my mind
          directly addresses my personal understanding, I agree.

   That of God in everyone
          the belief in the presence of God within all people. Also
          referred to as the Inner Light.

   Weighty Friend
          a Friend, respected for their experience and ability over their
          history of participation with Friends, whose opinion or ministry
          is especially valued.

Quaker worship

   Friends Meeting House, Manchester.
   Enlarge
   Friends Meeting House, Manchester.

   Friends treat all functions of the church as a form of worship,
   including business, marriage, and memorial services, in addition to
   regular meeting for worship. Quaker worship meetings are often referred
   to as "programmed" or "unprogrammed" meetings.

   While the different styles of worship generally reflect the theological
   splits, with unprogrammed meetings generally being more theologically
   liberal and programmed Friends churches more theologically
   conservative, this is not a strict rule. Many meetings hold both
   programmed and unprogrammed services or other activities. Some
   "Conservative" meetings are unprogrammed yet would be generally
   considered to be theologically closer to most programmed than
   unprogrammed meetings.

Unprogrammed worship

   Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among
   Friends and remains the norm in Britain, Ireland, Australia, New
   Zealand and parts of the United States and Canada. During an
   unprogrammed meeting for worship, Friends gather together in "expectant
   waiting" for divine leadings. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent,
   sometimes quite a few people speak. Meeting for Worship generally lasts
   about an hour.

   A member will rise and share a message (give "ministry") with the
   gathered meeting when they feel they are led by the spirit. Typically,
   messages, testimonies, ministry, or other speech are unprepared, and
   members are expected by the community to discern the source of their
   inspiration—whether divine or self.

   Unprogrammed worship is generally deemed to start as soon as the first
   participant is seated, the others entering the room in silence. The
   Meeting for Worship ends when one person (usually predetermined) shakes
   the hand of his or her neighbour. All the members of the assembly then
   shake hands with their neighbors, after which one member usually rises
   and extends greetings and makes announcements. Many meetings serve
   coffee or tea after meeting, which gives everyone an opportunity to
   catch up with friends and chat with visitors.

Programmed worship

   Programmed worship arose among Friends in the United States in the 19th
   century in response to large numbers of converts to Quakerism during
   the national spiritual revivalism of the time. Worship at a Friends
   Church resembles a typical Protestant worship service in the United
   States. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a
   sermon from the pastor. A period of silence (similar in practice to
   that of unprogrammed meetings though obviously much shorter) is
   included in some Programmed Friends worship services. Most Friends in
   the southern and central United States worship in this way.

   The Friends meetings started in Africa and Latin America were generally
   started by Friends from programmed elements of the society, therefore
   most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.

   Some Friends also hold what is termed Semi-Programmed Worship, which
   brings programmed elements like hymns and scripture readings into an
   otherwise unprogrammed worship service.

Quaker weddings

   Traditionally in a Friends Meeting when a couple decides to get married
   they declare their intentions to marry to the meeting. The meeting will
   typically form a "clearness committee" that meets with the couple to
   provide counsel and ascertain the clearness of their understanding and
   intent. Friends expect that those gathered will seek God's will and
   leading in the matter.

   A traditional wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any
   other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship, and therefore is often very
   different from the experience expected by non-Friends. There is no
   priest or high official to conduct the ceremony and sanction the union.
   The pair marry one another before God and gathered witnesses. After
   exchanging vows the meeting returns to open worship and guests are free
   to speak about the couple. At the rise of meeting all the witnesses,
   including the youngest children in attendance, are asked to sign the
   wedding certificate.

   In recent years Friends in Australia, Britain and some meetings in
   North America have celebrated weddings between members of the same sex.

Decision making among Friends

   A business meeting being held at Britain Yearly Meeting 2005 in York
   University
   A business meeting being held at Britain Yearly Meeting 2005 in York
   University

   Business decisions on a local level are conducted at a monthly "Meeting
   for Worship with a concern for business", or simply "Business Meeting".
   A business meeting is a form of worship, and all decisions are reached
   so that they are consistent with the guidance of the Spirit.

   Instead of voting, the Meeting for (Worship for) Business attempts to
   gain a sense of God's will for the community. Each member of the
   meeting is expected to listen to that of God within themselves and, if
   led, to contribute it to the group for reflection and consideration.
   Each member listens to others' contributions carefully, in an attitude
   of seeking Truth rather than of attempting to prevail or to debate.

   A decision is reached when the Meeting as a whole feels that the "way
   forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity").
   Occasionally, some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an
   issue, meaning that these members do not share in the general sense of
   the meeting but are willing to allow the group to move forward.

   Many Quakers describe the search for unity as the gathering of
   believers who "wait upon the Lord" to discover God's will. When seeking
   unity, Friends are not attempting to seek a position with which
   everyone is willing to live (as is often the case in consensual models)
   but in determining God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is
   listening to God's Spirit, everyone will hear similar messages and the
   way forward will become clear, for God's will is that the meeting
   should be united.

   The business conducted "in the manner of Friends" can seem
   time-consuming and impractical. The process surely can be frustrating
   and slow yet at its best it works remarkably well, allowing the group
   to come to decisions even around the most difficult mattters. By the
   time a decision is recognized, the important issues have been worked
   out and the group supports the decision. There is no "losing" side, no
   one will benefit if problems emerge in implementing the decision.
   Participants who have come to trust the process, confident that there
   will be enough time and interest to hear each important concern are
   unlikely to bring up the topic time and time again. It is much less
   likely that participants will suffer hurt as a result of the decision
   making. It is far less likely that additional meetings will be needed
   later to "fix" the original decision.

   Many who are unaware of the focus of Friends on "unity, not unanimity"
   express doubts as to whether this process of decision making can work
   in a large group. Many yearly meetings, however, have successfully
   employed this practice for years. Some Quaker-related organizations,
   such as Haverford College in Philadelphia, utilize traditional Quaker
   form practices of governance.

   Coming to decisions by the sense of the meeting has been a centerpiece
   of the Religious Society of Friends for over 350 years, at times seeing
   them through extremely difficult decisions. Quaker-style decision
   making has been adapted for use in secular settings in recent years
   (see Consensus decision-making).

Memorial services

   Traditional Quaker memorial services are also held as a form of
   worship. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the
   person who has died. Memorial services often last over an hour,
   particularly if there are a large number of people in attendance.
   Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost
   individual in their own way, thus bringing comfort to those present,
   and re-affirmation of the larger community of Friends.

Basic divisions and organization

   Like many movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved,
   changed, and split into various smaller subgroups.

In Africa

   Many may be surprised to learn that the highest concentration of
   Quakers is to be found in Africa. (43 percent of Quakers worldwide are
   found in Africa, versus 30 percent in North America, 17 percent in
   Latin America and the Caribbean, 6 percent in Europe, and 4 percent in
   Asia/West Pacific.) The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of
   a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the largest Yearly Meeting in
   the world. Today, this region is served by several distinct Yearly
   Meetings. Most of these are affiliated with the Friends United Meeting,
   practice programmed worship, and employ pastors. There are also Friends
   meetings in Rwanda and Burundi, as well as new work beginning in
   Morocco. For more information see Quakers in Kenya.

In Great Britain

   Friends in Britain have maintained a high level of organizational unity
   throughout the history of the Society. The local Friends meetings are
   called preparative meetings. Several local meetings are part of a
   monthly meeting. Several monthly meetings are organized into a general
   meeting. Formerly, general meetings were called quarterly meetings,
   and, while they continue to meet up to three times per year, they
   usually play no direct role in Quaker structures. Monthly meetings are
   represented directly in Meeting for Sufferings, which meets in between
   Yearly meetings.

In the United States

   Friends in the United States are more diverse in their practices,
   though united by many common bonds. Along with the division of worship
   style (see "Quaker Worship" above) come several differences of
   theology, vocabulary and practice.

   A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting,
   or a monthly meeting (e.g., Smalltown Meeting or Smalltown Monthly
   Meeting). Several local monthly meetings are often part of a regional
   group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even
   larger group called a yearly meeting.

   In programmed traditions, the local congregations are often referred to
   as "Friends Churches".

In Australia

   Considerable distances between the colonies, and a low immigration of
   Quakers, meant that the organization of Friends in Australia was quite
   dependent on London until the twentieth century. The Society has
   remained unprogrammed and is constituted as the Australia Yearly
   Meeting, with local organization around seven Regional Meetings:
   Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South
   Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern
   Territory), Tasmania, Victoria and West Australia. There is an annual
   meeting each January hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a
   seven year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August.

Names

   George Fox played an important part in founding the Religious Society
   of Friends
   George Fox played an important part in founding the Religious Society
   of Friends

   Various names have been used for the Friends movement and its
   adherents. These include:
     * Children of the light
     * Friends
     * Friends of the Truth
     * Quakers
     * Religious Society of Friends
     * Saints
     * Seekers
     * Society of Friends
     * Friends among friends
     * Publishers of Truth

   In the first few years of the movement, Quakers thought of themselves
   as part of the restoration of the true Christian church after centuries
   of apostasy. For this reason, during this period they often referred to
   themselves as simply the "saints" or the "children of light". Another
   common name was "Friends of the Truth", reflecting the central
   importance in early Quaker theology of Christ as an Inner light that
   shows you your true condition.

   The name "Quaker" was first used in 1650, when preacher George Fox was
   brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of blasphemy.
   According to Fox's journal, Bennet "called us Quakers because we bid
   them tremble at the word of God." Indeed, early Friends did tremble and
   shake at their meetings, and spent many pamphlets defending "quaking"
   as a biblical phenomenon. Some Friends (including Fox) disliked the
   name, but it began to stick nonetheless. There was apparently an
   attempt after a 1654 meeting in Leicestershire to become known as the
   "children of light", but this was not successful.

   The name "Religious Society of Friends" came many years later, in the
   18th century. This remains the official name to this day, although
   often "Quakers" is added in parentheses for the sake of clarity. Also,
   there are some Friends, usually in unprogrammed meetings, who object to
   the word "religious" and refer to themselves as part of the "Society of
   Friends". There are some monthly meetings that for this reason do not
   include "religious" in their name, while most larger Quaker
   organizations, such as yearly meetings, use the full name.

History

   Quaker William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania
   Enlarge
   Quaker William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania

   The Quakers began in England in 1648, as a Nonconformist breakaway
   movement from English Puritanism (Anglicanism as we know it today was
   officially suppressed during Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth of
   England). As the movement expanded, it faced opposition and
   persecution. Quakers were imprisoned and beaten in both the British
   Isles and the British colonies. In the Massachusetts Bay colony,
   Quakers were banished on pain of death—some Quakers (most famously Mary
   Dyer) were hanged in Boston Square for returning to preach their
   beliefs. Quakers were effectively banned from sitting in Parliament at
   Westminster from 1698-1833. The state of Pennsylvania was founded by
   William Penn, as a safe place for Quakers to live and practice their
   faith. Despite persecution, the movement grew steadily into a strong
   and united society.

   During the 19th century Friends in Ireland and the United States
   suffered a number of separations.

Hicksite-Orthodox split

   In 1827 a division occurred within Philadelphia Yearly Meeting when its
   members could not agree on a person to be named its clerk. The issue
   involved the visits and preaching of Elias Hicks in violation of the
   will of numerous elders of the yearly meeting; they claimed his views
   were universalist and contradicted the historical tradition of Friends.
   The same year, a number of Friends in sympathy with him separated to
   form a parallel system of yearly meetings in America, referred to as
   Hicksite; ultimately five yearly meetings divided. The Quakers who did
   not follow Hicks were called Orthodox.

Gurneyite-Wilburite split

   The Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic
   dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode
   Island. Gurney emphasized scriptural authority and favored working
   closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the
   authority of the Holy Spirit, as primary and worked to prevent what he
   saw as the dilution of Friends tradition of Spirit-led ministry. Wilbur
   was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in
   1842. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite-Gurneyite
   separations occurred.

Beanites

   Joel Bean was an Orthodox Friend who opposed the extreme evangelicalism
   that was creeping into his branch of Quakerism. He formed a new branch
   of Quakerism in the western part of the United States when his
   membership was terminated and his meeting was laid down by Iowa Yearly
   Meeting.

   The "Beanite", or independent, Quakers resemble an amalgam of Hicksite
   and Wilburite Quakerism, some of them adopting the label
   "Christ-Centered Universalism".

Testimonies

   Quaker testimonies are the traditional statements of Quaker belief.
   Testimonies are not formal static documents, but rather a shared
   collection or view of how Quakers relate to God and the world.
   Testimonies cannot easily be taken one at a time, as they are
   interrelated. As a philosophical system, they can be seen as coherent
   even outside of Christian theology. Friends have not always been
   consistent with their stated values, but these statements of belief
   have provided strong guidance to Friends through much of their history.

   While the list of testimonies, like all aspects of Friends theology, is
   evolving, the following are common.
     * The Peace Testimony
     * The Testimony of Equality
     * The Testimony of Integrity
     * The Testimony of Simplicity

   Some Friends also include other testimonies, such as Unity, Community,
   Compassion, and Stewardship. The acronym SPICE is used as well, which
   stands for Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, and Equality.

The Peace Testimony

   The Peace Testimony is probably the best known testimony of Friends.
   The belief that violence is always wrong has persisted to this day, and
   many conscientious objectors, advocates of non-violence and anti-war
   activists are Friends. Because of the peace testimony, Friends are
   often considered as one of the historic peace churches. In 1947
   Quakerism was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the prize was accepted by
   the American Friends Service Committee and Friends Service Council on
   behalf of all Friends. The Peace Testimony has not always been well
   received in the world; on many occasions Friends have been imprisoned
   for refusing to serve in military activities.

   Some Friends today regard the Peace Testimony in even a broader sense,
   refusing to pay the "War Tax" that is a large portion of the income tax
   in the United States. Many Friends engage in various non-governmental
   organizations such as Christian Peacemaker Teams serving in some of the
   most violent areas of the world.

The Testimony of Equality

   A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London in the 18th century
   Enlarge
   A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London in the 18th century

   Friends believe that all people are created equal in the eyes of God.
   Since all people embody the same divine spark all people deserve equal
   treatment. Friends were some of the first to value women as important
   ministers and to campaign for women's rights, they became leaders in
   the anti-slavery movement, and were among the first to pioneer humane
   treatment for the mentally ill and for prisoners.

The Testimony of Integrity

   Also known as the Testimony of Truth, or Truth Testimony, the essence
   of the Testimony of Integrity is placing God at the centre of one's
   life and refusing to place things other than God there—whether it be
   oneself, possessions, the regard of others, belief in principles or
   something else. To Friends integrity is in choosing to follow the
   leading of the Spirit despite the challenges and urges to do otherwise.

   This testimony has led to Friends having a reputation for being honest
   and fair in their dealings with others. It has led them to give proper
   credit to others for their contributions and to accept responsibility
   for their own actions. Part of the reason early Quaker merchants did
   away with haggling over prices in favour of fixed prices was their
   belief that one should not ask a higher price than you expected to
   receive.

   Among some early Friends this testimony led them to refuse to
   participate in drama, stating that to pretend you were someone else was
   to deny your integrity.

The Testimony of Simplicity

   Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material
   possessions and is often referred to as plainness. Friends
   traditionally limited their possessions to what they needed to live
   their lives, rather than pursuing luxuries. Recently this testimony is
   often taken to have an ecological dimension: that Friends should not
   use more than their fair share of the Earth's resources.

   This testimony is largely responsible for the tradition of plain walls
   and functional furniture in meetinghouses.

Quaker organizations

   Throughout their history, Quakers have founded organizations for many
   causes they felt are in keeping with their faith. There are many
   schools around the world founded by Friends (for a list of such schools
   with links to other articles, see List of Friends Schools).

   There are various organizations associated with Friends including: a US
   lobbying organization based in Washington, DC called the Friends
   Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); several service organizations
   like the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United
   Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, and the Friends
   Committee on Scouting.

   Additionally Friends have founded organizations to help maintain order
   and communication within the society. Some yearly meetings belong to
   larger organizations, the three chief ones being Friends General
   Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends
   International (EFI). (In each of these three groups, most member
   organizations are from the United States.) FGC is theologically the
   most liberal of the three groups, while EFI is the most conservative.
   FUM is the largest of the three. Some monthly meetings belong to more
   than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent,
   not belonging to any. Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC)
   is the international Quaker organization which loosely unifies the
   diverse groups of Friends. FWCC brings together the largest variety of
   Friends in the world.

   Several organizations centered on education have continued amongst
   Friends, including Friends Council on Education (FCE) an organization
   supporting Friends schools (typically primary through secondary, often
   boarding) and Friends Association for Higher Education (FAHE) which
   supports Friends post-secondary institutions and those who resonate
   with Friends' teaching and traditions who serve in higher education.

Recommended reading

     * Abbott, Margery, Mary Ellen Chijioke, Pink Dandelion, and John
       William Oliver, editors, Historical Dictionary of The Friends
       (Quakers) ISBN 0-8108-4483-4
     * Allen, David., There is a River: a Charismatic Church History in
       Outline ISBN 1-85078-564-3
     * Bacon, Margaret H., The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in
       America ISBN 0-87574-935-6
     * Bill, J. Brent, Holy Silence ISBN 1-55725-420-6
     * Brinton, Howard H., Friends for 300 Years ISBN 0-87574-903-8
     * Birkel, Michael L., Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition ISBN
       1-57075-518-3 (in the UK, ISBN 0-232-52448-3)
     * Cooper, Wilmer A., A Living Faith : An Historical and Comparative
       Study of Quaker Beliefs. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-944350-53-4
     * Gillman, Harvey, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the
       Quakers ISBN 0-85245-213-6
     * Hamm, Thomas D., The Quakers in America ISBN 0-231-12362-0
     * Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement ISBN 0-85245-189-X and
       ISBN 0-14-021663-4
     * Ingle, H. Larry, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation
       of Quakerism ISBN 0-19-507803-9 and ISBN 0-19-510117-0
     * Ingle, H. Larry, Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation ISBN
       0-87574-926-7
     * Moore, Rosemary, The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers
       in Britain 1646-1666 ISBN 0-271-01989-1
     * Mullet, Michael, editor, New Light on George Fox ISBN 1-85072-142-4
     * Punshon, John, Portrait in Grey : a short history of the Quakers
       ISBN 0-85245-180-6
     * Pym, Jim, Listening to the Light: How to Bring Quaker Simplicity
       and Integrity into our Lives. ISBN 0-7126-7020-3
     * Smith, Robert Lawrence, A Quaker Book of Wisdom ISBN 0-688-17233-4
     * West, Jessamyn, editor, The Quaker Reader ISBN 0-87574-916-X
     * Wilson, Lloyd Lee, Essays On The Quaker Vision Of Gospel Order ISBN
       0-87574-925-9
     * Wilson, Lloyd Lee, Wrestling with Our Faith Tradition: Collected
       Public Witness, 1995-2004 ISBN 1-888305-36-4

Children's books

     * Turkle, Brinton. (Some are out of print, but can be found in
       libraries, used book stores, or online.)
          + The Adventures of Obadiah
          + Obadiah the Bold
          + Rachel and Obadiah
          + Thy Friend, Obadiah

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