   #copyright

Religion

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements,
traditions and organizations

   Religious symbols, Left to right: Row 1. Christian, Jewish, Hindu Row
   2. Islamic, Buddhist, Shinto Row 3. Sikh, Baha'i, Jain
   Religious symbols, Left to right:
   Row 1. Christian, Jewish, Hindu
   Row 2. Islamic, Buddhist, Shinto
   Row 3. Sikh, Baha'i, Jain

   A religion is a set of beliefs and practices generally held by a
   community, involving adherence to codified beliefs and rituals and
   study of ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, and
   mythology, as well as personal faith and mystic experience. The term
   "religion" refers to both the personal practices related to communal
   faith and to group rituals and communication stemming from shared
   conviction.

   All patriarchal religions present a common quality, the "hallmark of
   patriarchal religious thought": the division of the world in two
   comprehensive domains, one sacred, the other profane. Religion is often
   described as a communal system for the coherence of belief focusing on
   a system of thought, unseen being, person, or object, that is
   considered to be supernatural, sacred, divine, or of the highest truth.
   Moral codes, practices, values, institutions, tradition, rituals, and
   scriptures are often traditionally associated with the core belief, and
   these may have some overlap with concepts in secular philosophy.
   Religion is also often described as a " way of life".

   The development of religion has taken many forms in various cultures.
   "Organized religion" generally refers to an organization of people
   supporting the exercise of some religion with a prescribed set of
   beliefs, often taking the form of a legal entity (see
   religion-supporting organization). Other religions believe in personal
   revelation and responsibility. "Religion" is sometimes used
   interchangeably with " faith" or " belief system," but is more socially
   defined than that of personal convictions.

Definition of religion

   Religion has been defined in a wide variety of ways. Most definitions
   attempt to find a balance somewhere between overly sharp definition and
   meaningless generalities. Some sources have tried to use formalistic,
   doctrinal definitions while others have emphasized experiential,
   emotive, intuitive, valuational and ethical factors.

   Sociologists and anthropologists tend to see religion as an abstract
   set of ideas, values, or experiences developed as part of a cultural
   matrix. For example, in Lindbeck's Nature of Doctrine, religion does
   not refer to belief in "God" or a transcendent Absolute. Instead,
   Lindbeck defines religion as, "a kind of cultural and/or linguistic
   framework or medium that shapes the entirety of life and thought… it is
   similar to an idiom that makes possible the description of realities,
   the formulation of beliefs, and the experiencing of inner attitudes,
   feelings, and sentiments.” According to this definition, religion
   refers to one's primary worldview and how this dictates one's thoughts
   and actions.

   Other religious scholars have put forward a definition of religion that
   avoids the reductionism of the various sociological and psychological
   disciplines that reduce religion to its component factors. Religion may
   be defined as the presence of a belief in the sacred or the holy. For
   example Rudolf Otto's "The Idea of the Holy," formulated in 1917,
   defines the essence of religious awareness as awe, a unique blend of
   fear and fascination before the divine. Friedrich Schleiermacher in the
   late 18th century defined religion as a "feeling of absolute
   dependence."

   The Encyclopedia of Religion defines religion this way:

     In summary, it may be said that almost every known culture involves
     the religious in the above sense of a depth dimension in cultural
     experiences at all levels — a push, whether ill-defined or
     conscious, toward some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will
     provide norms and power for the rest of life. When more or less
     distinct patterns of behaviour are built around this depth dimension
     in a culture, this structure constitutes religion in its
     historically recognizable form. Religion is the organization of life
     around the depth dimensions of experience — varied in form,
     completeness, and clarity in accordance with the environing
     culture."

   Other encyclopedic definitions include: "A general term used... to
   designate all concepts concerning the belief in god(s) and goddess(es)
   as well as other spiritual beings or transcendental ultimate concerns"
   and "human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred,
   spiritual, or divine."

Development of religion

   There are a number of models regarding the ways in which religions come
   into being and develop. Broadly speaking, these models fall into three
   categories:
     * Models which see religions as social constructions;
     * Models which see religions as progressing toward higher, objective
       truth;
     * Models which see a particular religion as absolutely true.

   The models are not mutually exclusive. Multiple models may be seen to
   apply simultaneously, or different models may be seen as applying to
   different religions.

Demographics

Present day adherents

   High range estimate for Christianity
   High range estimate for Christianity
   Dominant world religions, mapped by country.
   Dominant world religions, mapped by country.
   Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old
   woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.
   Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old
   woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.

   The following statistics show the number of adherents in all known
   approaches, both religious and irreligious worldwide. [Note: these
   statistics are taken from a single site (see Adherents), which also
   states that its total for Christianity is provided by a single source,
   David Barrett, described as an "Evangelical Christian", and elsewhere
   listed as "Research Professor of Missiometrics at Regent University".
   The term "adherents" is moreover not defined in this context and is not
   universally accepted as the most appropriate basis for ranking
   religions by size. For example:

     Many Muslims (and some non-Muslim) observers claim that there are
     more practicing Muslims than practicing Christians in the world.
     Adherents.com has no reason to dispute this. It seems likely, but we
     would point out that there are different opinions on the matter, and
     a Muslim may define "practicing" differently than a Christian....

   Other sources quoted in this article put the percentages of various
   countries' populations who rank Religion (any denomination) as "Very
   Important" at small fractions of those used to compile the table
   below]. Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion and
   Buddhism are the largest world religions today. Approximately 69-78% of
   humanity adheres to one of these five religions. Christianity is the
   religion with the largest number of adherents, followed by Islam,
   Hinduism, Chinese folk religion and Buddhism respectively. However, the
   third-largest "group" of approximately 1 billion people do not adhere
   to religious approaches. Their irreligious approaches include Humanism,
   Atheism, Rationalism, and Agnosticism. These figures are necessarily
   approximate: note that the figures in the following table total nearly
   7 billion people, yet the world population was only 6.4 billion (2005),
   and a person can claim adherency to more than one religion.
    1. Christianity 2.1 billion (see below)
    2. Islam 1.3 billion (see below)
    3. Non-Adherent ( Secular/ Atheist/ Irreligious/ Agnostic/ Nontheist)
       1.1 billion
    4. Hinduism 900 million (see below)
    5. Chinese folk religion 394 million (see below)
    6. Buddhism 376 million
    7. Primal indigenous (" Pagan") 300 million
    8. African traditional and diasporic 100 million
    9. Sikhism 23 million
   10. Juche 19 million
   11. Spiritism 15 million
   12. Judaism 14 million
   13. Bahá'í Faith 7 million
   14. Jehovah's Witnesses 6.5 million
   15. Jainism 4.2 million
   16. Shinto 4 million (see below)
   17. Cao Dai 4 million
   18. Zoroastrianism 2.6 million
   19. Tenrikyo 2 million
   20. Millenian 1.5 million
   21. Neo-Paganism 1 million
   22. Unitarian Universalism 800,000
   23. Rastafari movement 600,000

     * Christianity encompasses many different denominations but the
       statistics in the source for this document consider most of them
       all together for the purposes of analysis (except Unitarians and
       Rastafarians). The detailed country-by-country figures given by the
       primary source for this section sum to a range lower than the 2.1
       Billion total cited in the summary "Major Religions of the World"
       list (itself derived from the World Christian Encyclopedia).

     * The high end estimate for Islam from the source for the table above
       is 1.4 billion:

     Islam: Contemporary figures for Islam are usually between 900
     million and 1.4 billion, with 1 billion being a figure frequently
     given in comparative religion texts, probably because it's such a
     nice, round number.

     * The high end estimate for Hinduism from the source for the table
       above is 1.4 billion:

     Hinduism: The highest figure we've seen for Hinduism (1.4 billion,
     Clarke, Peter B., editor), The Religions of the World: Understanding
     the Living Faiths, Marshall Editions Limited: USA (1993); pg. 125.)
     is actually higher than the highest figure we've seen for Islam. But
     this is an aberration. World Hinduism adherent figures are usually
     between 850 million and one billion.

     * Shinto is a special case due to shrine-reporting versus
       self-reporting. Since the 17th century, there have been laws in
       Japan requiring registration with Shinto shrines. Because of this,
       75-90% of all Japanese are listed on shrine rolls, greatly
       inflating the apparent number of adherents. When asked in polls,
       only about 3.3% of Japanese people identify themselves as "Shinto."
       However, many who do not consider themselves "Shintoists" still
       practice Shinto rituals.

   In ranking religious denominations, the Roman Catholic Church is the
   largest single denomination within Christianity, Sunni Islam within
   Islam, and Vaishnavism within Hinduism. It is difficult to say whether
   there are more Roman Catholics or Sunnis, as the numbers are roughly
   equal, and exact counts are impossible, because some members though
   legally accepted in those denominations may have renounced their faith
   or have converted quickly.

Trends in adherence

   World map based on the results of a 2002 Pew Research Center study on
   the importance of religion.
   World map based on the results of a 2002 Pew Research Centre study on
   the importance of religion.
   The largest religious gathering of humans on Earth [1]. About 70
   million Hindus from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela in the
   Hindu holy city of Prayaga, India, which is also known as Allahabad.
   The largest religious gathering of humans on Earth . About 70 million
   Hindus from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela in the Hindu
   holy city of Prayaga, India, which is also known as Allahabad.

   Since the late 19th century, the demographics of religion have changed
   a great deal. Some countries with a historically large Christian
   population have experienced a significant decline in the numbers of
   professed active Christians. Symptoms of the decline in active
   participation in Christian religious life include declining recruitment
   for the priesthood and monastic life, as well as diminishing attendance
   at church. At the same time, there has been an increase in the number
   of people who identify themselves as secular humanists. In many
   countries, such as the People's Republic of China, communist
   governments have discouraged religion, making it difficult to count the
   actual number of believers. However, after the collapse of communism in
   numerous countries of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union,
   Eastern Orthodox Christianity has been experiencing considerable
   resurgence there.

   Within the world's four largest religions Christianity currently has
   the greatest growth by numbers and Islam has the fastest growth by
   percentage. Christianity is spreading rapidly in northern Africa and
   the Far East, in particular China and South Korea. Hinduism is
   undergoing a revival, and many temples are being built, both in India
   and in other countries. Analyzing percentage growth is a difficult
   matter - see this article for a discussion. However, the World
   Christian Encyclopedia and World Christian Trends reported these
   numbers from growth from 1990-2000:

     1990-2000
     * 2.65% - Zoroastrianism
     * 2.28% - Bahá'í Faith
     * 2.13% - Islam
     * 1.87% - Sikhism
     * 1.69% - Hinduism
     * 1.36% - Christianity
     * 1.09% - Buddhism

   (the annual growth in the world population over the same period is
   1.41%)

   A 2002 Pew Research Centre study found that, generally, poorer nations
   had a larger proportion of citizens who found religion to be very
   important than richer nations, with the exception of the United States.

Religious belief

   Religious belief usually relates to the existence, nature and worship
   of a deity or deities and divine involvement in the universe and human
   life. Alternately, it may also relate to values and practices
   transmitted by a spiritual leader. Unlike other belief systems, which
   may be passed on orally, religious belief tends to be codified in
   literate societies (religion in non-literate societies is still largely
   passed on orally ).

   Religious beliefs are found in virtually every society throughout human
   history. Many native traditions held clowns and tricksters as essential
   to any contact with the sacred. People could not pray until they had
   laughed, because laughter opens and frees from rigid preconception.
   Humans had to have tricksters within the most sacred ceremonies for
   fear that they forget the sacred comes through upset, reversal,
   surprise. The trickster in most native traditions is essential to
   creation, to birth".

Related forms of thought

Religion and science

   Religious knowledge, according to religious practitioners, may be
   gained from religious leaders, sacred texts ( scriptures), and/or
   personal revelation. Some religions view such knowledge as unlimited in
   scope and suitable to answer any question; others see religious
   knowledge as playing a more restricted role, often as a complement to
   knowledge gained through physical observation. Some religious people
   maintain that religious knowledge obtained in this way is absolute and
   infallible ( religious cosmology). While almost unlimited, this
   knowledge can be unreliable, since the particulars of religious
   knowledge vary from religion to religion, from sect to sect, and often
   from individual to individual.
   Early science such as geometry and astronomy was connected to the
   divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this 13th Century
   manuscript is a symbol of God's act of creation.
   Early science such as geometry and astronomy was connected to the
   divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this 13th Century
   manuscript is a symbol of God's act of creation.

   The scientific method gains knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop
   theories through elucidation of facts or evalution by experiments and
   thus only answers cosmological questions about the physical universe.
   It develops theories of the world which best fit physically observed
   evidence. All scientific knowledge is probabilistic and subject to
   later improvement or revision in the face of better evidence.
   Scientific theories that have an overwhelming preponderance of
   favorable evidence are often treated as facts (such as the theory of
   gravity).

   Many early scientists held strong religious beliefs (see Scientists of
   Faith and List of Christian thinkers in science) and strove to
   reconcile science and religion. Isaac Newton, for example, believed
   that gravity caused the planets to revolve about the Sun, and credited
   God with the design. In the concluding General Scholium to the
   Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he wrote: "This most
   beautiful System of the Sun, Planets and Comets, could only proceed
   from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful being."
   Nevertheless, conflict arose between religious organizations and
   individuals who propagated scientific theories which were deemed
   unacceptable by the organizations. The Roman Catholic Church, for
   example, has historically reserved to itself the right to decide which
   scientific theories are acceptable and which are unacceptable. In the
   17th century, Galileo was tried and forced to recant the heliocentric
   theory.

   Many theories exist as to why religions sometimes seem to conflict with
   scientific knowledge. In the case of Christianity, a relevant factor
   may be that it was among Christians that science in the modern sense
   was developed. Unlike other religious groups, as early as the 17th
   century the Christian churches had to deal directly with this new way
   to investigate nature and seek truth. The perceived conflict between
   science and Christianity may also be partially explained by a literal
   interpretation of the Bible adhered to by many Christians, both
   currently and historically. This way to read the sacred texts became
   especially prevalent after the rise of the Protestant reformation, with
   its emphasis on the Bible as the only authoritative source concerning
   the ultimate reality. This view is often shunned by both religious
   leaders (who regard literally believing it as petty and look for
   greater meaning instead) and scientists who regard it as an
   impossibility.

   Some Christians have disagreed or are still disagreeing with scientists
   in areas such as the validity of Keplerian astronomy, the theory of
   evolution, the method of creation of the universe and the Earth, and
   the origins of life. On the other hand, scholars such as Stanley Jaki
   have suggested that Christianity and its particular worldview was a
   crucial factor for the emergence of modern science. In fact, many of
   today's historians are moving away from the view of the relationship
   between Christianity and science as one of "conflict", a perspective
   commonly called the conflict thesis (or the Draper-White thesis). Gary
   Ferngren in his historical volume about Science & Religion states:

     While some historians had always regarded the Draper-White thesis as
     oversimplifying and distorting a complex relationship, in the late
     twentieth century it underwent a more systematic reevaluation. The
     result is the growing recognition among historians of science that
     the relationship of religion and science has been much more positive
     than is sometimes thought. Although popular images of controversy
     continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new
     scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often
     nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times
     the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at
     harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as
     examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule.

   In the Bahá'í Faith, the harmony of science and religion is a central
   tenet. The principle states that that truth is one, and therefore true
   science and true religion must be in harmony, thus rejecting the view
   that science and religion are in conflict. `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the
   founder of the religion, asserted that science and religion cannot be
   opposed because they are aspects of the same truth; he also affirmed
   that reasoning powers are required to understand the truths of religion
   and that religious teachings which are at variance with science should
   not be accepted; he explained that religion has to be reasonable since
   God endowed humankind with reason so that they can discover truth.
   Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, described science and
   religion as "the two most potent forces in human life."

   Proponents of Hinduism claim that Hinduism is not afraid of scientific
   explorations, nor of the technological progress of mankind. According
   to them, there is a comprehensive scope and opportunity for Hinduism to
   mold itself according to the demands and aspirations of the modern
   world; it has the ability to align itself with both science and
   spiritualism. This religion uses some modern examples to explain its
   ancient theories and reinforce its own beliefs. For example, some Hindu
   thinkers have used the terminology of quantum physics to explain some
   basic concepts of Hinduism such as Maya or the illusory and impermanent
   nature of our existence.

   The philosophical approach known as pragmatism, as propounded by the
   American philosopher William James, has been used to reconcile
   scientific with religious knowledge. Pragmatism, simplistically, holds
   that the truth of a set of beliefs can be indicated by its usefulness
   in helping people cope with a particular context of life. Thus, the
   fact that scientific beliefs are useful in predicting observations in
   the physical world can indicate a certain truth for scientific
   theories; the fact that religious beliefs can be useful in helping
   people cope with difficult emotions or moral decisions can indicate a
   certain truth for those beliefs. (For a similar postmodern view, see
   grand narrative).

Religion, metaphysics, and cosmology

   Religion and philosophy meet in several areas, notably in the study of
   metaphysics and cosmology. In particular, a distinct set of religious
   beliefs will often entail a specific metaphysics and cosmology. That
   is, a religion will generally have answers to metaphysical and
   cosmological questions about the nature of being, of the universe,
   humanity, and the divine.

Mysticism and esotericism

   Man meditating
   Man meditating

   Mysticism, in contrast with philosophy, denies that logic is the most
   important method of gaining enlightenment. Rather, physical disciplines
   such as yoga, stringent fasting, whirling (in the case of the Sufi
   dervishes), or the use of Psychoactive drugs such as LSD, lead to
   altered states of consciousness that logic can never hope to grasp.

   Mysticism (to initiate) is the pursuit of communion with, or conscious
   awareness of ultimate reality, the divine, spiritual truth, or God
   through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight) rather than
   rational thought. Mystics speak of the existence of realities behind
   external perception or intellectual apprehension that are central to
   being and directly accessible through personal experience. They say
   that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge.

   Esotericism claims to be more sophisticated than religion, to rely on
   intellectual understanding rather than faith, and to improve on
   philosophy in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual
   transformation ( esoteric cosmology). Esotericism refers to "hidden"
   knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as
   opposed to exoteric knowledge, which is public. It applies especially
   to spiritual practices. The mystery religions of ancient Greece are
   examples of Esotericism.

Spirituality

   Members of an organized religion may not see any significant difference
   between religion and spirituality. Or they may see a distinction
   between the mundane, earthly aspects of their religion and its
   spiritual dimension.

   Some individuals draw a strong distinction between religion and
   spirituality. They may see spirituality as a belief in ideas of
   religious significance (such as God, the Soul, or Heaven), but not feel
   bound to the bureaucratic structure and creeds of a particular
   organized religion. They choose the term spirituality rather than
   religion to describe their form of belief, perhaps reflecting a
   disillusionment with organized religion (see Religion in modernity),
   and a movement towards a more "modern" — more tolerant, and more
   intuitive — form of religion. These individuals may reject organized
   religion because of historical acts by religious organizations, such as
   Islamic terrorism, the marginalisation and persecution of various
   minorities or the Spanish Inquisition.

Myth

   The word myth has several meanings.
    1. A traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to
       unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice,
       belief, or natural phenomenon;
    2. A person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable
       existence; or
    3. A metaphor for the spiritual potentiality in the human being.

   Ancient polytheistic religions, such as those of Greece, Rome, and
   Scandinavia, are usually categorized under the heading of mythology.
   Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or cultures in development, are
   similarly called "myths" in the anthropology of religion. The term
   "myth" can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious
   people. By defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as
   mythology, one implies that they are less real or true than one's own
   religious stories and beliefs. Joseph Campbell remarked, "Mythology is
   often thought of as other people's religions, and religion can be
   defined as mis-interpreted mythology."

   Humanists believe that all religion is based on myth, meaning that it
   is based on legendary stories that are not in fact true.

   In sociology, however, the term myth has a non-pejorative meaning.
   There, myth is defined as a story that is important for the group
   whether or not it is objectively or provably true. Examples include the
   death and resurrection of Jesus, which, to Christians, explains the
   means by which they are freed from sin and is also ostensibly a
   historical event. But from a mythological outlook, whether or not the
   event actually occurred is unimportant. Instead, the symbolism of the
   death of an old "life" and the start of a new "life" is what is most
   significant.
   Urarina shaman, 1988
   Urarina shaman, 1988

Cosmology

   Humans have many different methods which attempt to answer fundamental
   questions about the nature of the universe and our place in it (
   cosmology). Religion is only one of the methods for trying to answer
   one or more of these questions. Other methods include science,
   philosophy, metaphysics, astrology, esotericism, mysticism, and forms
   of shamanism, such as the sacred consumption of ayahuasca among
   Peruvian Amazonia's Urarina. The Urarina have an elaborate animistic
   cosmological system, which informs their mythology, religious
   orientation and daily existence.

   Given the generalized discontents with modernity, consumerism, over-
   consumption, violence and anomie, many people in the so-called
   industrial or post-industrial West rely on a number of distinctive
   religious worldviews. This in turn has given rise to increased
   religious pluralism, as well as to what are commonly known in the
   academic literature as new religious movements, which are gaining
   ground across the globe.

Etymology

   The etymology of the word "religion" has been debated for centuries.
   The English word clearly derives from the Latin religio, "reverence
   (for the gods)" or "conscientiousness". The origins of religio,
   however, are obscure. Proposed etymological interpretations include:

From Relego

     * Re-reading–from Latin re (again) + lego (in the sense of "read"),
       referring to the repetition of scripture.
     * Treating carefully–from Latin re (again) + lego (in the sense of
       "choose"–this was the interpretation of Cicero) "go over again" or
       "consider carefully".

From Religare

     * Re-connection to the divine–from Latin re (again) + ligare (to
       connect, as in English ligament). This interpretation is favoured
       by modern scholars such as Tom Harpur, but was made prominent by
       St. Augustine, following the interpretation of Lactantius.
     * To bind or return to bondage–an alternate interpretation of the
       "reconnection" etymology emphasizing a sense of servitude to God,
       this may have originated with Augustine. However, the
       interpretation, while popular with critics of religion, is often
       considered imprecise and possibly offensive to followers.

From Res + legere

     * Concerning a gathering — from Latin res (ablative re, with regard
       to) + legere (to gather), since organized religion revolves around
       a gathering of people.

Criticism

   The word critic comes from the Greek κριτικός, kritikós - one who
   discerns, which itself arises from the Ancient Greek word κριτής,
   krités, meaning a person who offers reasoned judgement or analysis,
   value judgement, interpretation, or observation. The term can be used
   to describe an adherent of a position disagreeing with or opposing the
   object of criticism.

   Most western criticism of religion focuses on the Abrahamic religions —
   particularly Christianity, Judaism, and Islam — with titles such as Why
   I am not a Christian, The God Delusion and The End of Faith
   representing some popular published books. Not all the criticisms would
   apply to all religions: criticism regarding the existence of god(s),
   for example, has very little relevance to some forms of Buddhism.

   Many people consider all religious faith essentially irrational. By
   definition, agnostics are skeptics of religion.

   Many critics claim dogmatic religions are typically morally deficient,
   elevating to moral status ancient, arbitrary, and ill-informed rules
   that may have been designed for reasons of hygiene, politics, or other
   reasons in a bygone era. People who break these rules are often
   condemned and victimised even though they have only done wrong within a
   particular religion's idiosyncratic conception of what constitutes
   right and wrong.

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