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Qing Dynasty

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   The Qing Dynasty (Chinese: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng cháo; Wade-Giles: Ch'ing
   ch'ao; Manchu: daicing gurun), occasionally known as the Manchu
   Dynasty, was a dynasty founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro, in what
   is today northeast China, expanded into China and the surrounding
   territories, establishing the Empire of the Great Qing ( Traditional
   Chinese: 大清國; pinyin: dàqīngguó). According to Chinese tradition, the
   Qing Dynasty was the last Imperial dynasty of China. Declared as the
   Later Jin Dynasty in 1616, it changed its name in 1636 to "Qing", and
   became the ruler of all of China in 1644, completing the Manchu
   conquest.

   During its reign, the Qing Dynasty consolidated its grip on China,
   integrated with Chinese culture, and saw the height of Imperial Chinese
   influence. However, its military power weakened during the 1800s, and
   faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in
   wars, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. The Qing
   Dynasty was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution when Empress
   Dowager Longyu, faced with massive opposition, abdicated on behalf of
   the last emperor, Puyi, on February 12, 1912.

   "Later Jin" is sometimes spelled "Later Jinn" to distinguish from
   another Later Jin Dynasty (936-946).

Formation of the Manchu state

   Flag of Qing Dynasty, 1862-1890
   Enlarge
   Flag of Qing Dynasty, 1862-1890

   The Qing Dynasty was founded not by the Han Chinese who form the
   majority of the Chinese population, but the Manchus, today an ethnic
   minority in China. A nomadic people, the Manchus first rose to
   prominence in what is now northeastern China. The Manchu state was
   formed by Nurhaci in the early 17th century. Originally a vassal under
   the Ming Dynasty, he declared himself Emperor of the Later Jin in 1609.
   In the same year, he expanded the state's economic and human resources
   as well as technology by enlisting the Han inhabitants of Manchuria. In
   1625, Nurhaci established his capital at Shenyang (also Shenjing;
   Manchu: Mukden), but the following year, he suffered his first major
   military defeat to the Ming general Yuan Chonghuan. Nurhaci died the
   same year. One of his most important achievements was the creation of
   the Eight Banner system, under which all Manchus belonged to one of the
   eight "Banners", which were civil as well as military units. The
   Banners are so-named because each was represented by a distinctive
   banner.

   Nurhaci's successor Huang Taiji continued to build on his father's
   foundations, incorporating the first Han banners into his army. Huang
   Taiji also adopted many Ming political institutions into his Manchu
   state, but also provided for Manchu domination of those institutions
   through a quota system. When Ligden Khan, the last grand-Khan of the
   Mongols, died on his way to Tibet in 1634, his son Ejei surrendered to
   the Manchus and gave the great seal of the Yuan Emperor to Huang Taiji.
   In 1636, Huang Taiji renamed the state Qing, meaning pure, suggesting
   ambitions beyond Manchuria. The name Qing was chosen because the name
   of the Ming Dynasty (明) is composed of the characters for sun (日) and
   moon (月), which are associated with the fire element. The character
   Qing (清) is composed of the water (水) radical and the character for
   green (青), which are both associated with the water element. In a
   series of military campaigns, Huang Taiji won the submission of Inner
   Mongolia and Korea before proceeding to take control of the
   Heilongjiang region, situated around the Black Dragon River.

Claiming the Mandate of Heaven

   Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng.
   The Ming Dynasty officially came to an end when the Chongzhen Emperor
   of China, the last Ming Emperor, committed suicide by hanging himself
   on a tree on Coal Hill overlooking the Forbidden City. After taking
   Beijing in April, 1644, Li Zicheng led an army of 600,000 strong to
   confront Wu Sangui, the general commanding Ming's 100,000-strong
   garrison guarding Shanhaiguan (山海關). Shanhaiguan is the pivotal
   northeastern pass of the Great Wall of China located fifty miles
   northeast of Beijing and for years its defenses were what kept the
   Manchus outside of the capital. Wu, caught between two enemies, decided
   to cast his lot with the Manchus and made an alliance with Prince
   Dorgon, regent to the then six-year old Emperor Shunzhi, son of Emperor
   Huang Taiji who had died the year before.

   Together, the two armies defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in battle
   on May 27, 1644. The process took another seventeen years of battling
   Ming loyalists, pretenders and rebels. The last Ming pretender, Prince
   Gui, sought refuge in Burma, now modern Myanmar, but was turned over to
   a Qing expeditionary force headed by Wu Sangui who had him brought back
   to Yunnan province and executed in early 1662.

Kangxi and consolidation

   The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1662 - 1722)
   Enlarge
   The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1662 - 1722)

   The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1662 - 1722) assumed the throne at age eight.
   During the early years of his reign, he was largely aided by his
   grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager, Xiaozhuang.

   The Manchus found controlling the " Mandate of Heaven" a daunting task.
   The vastness of China's territory meant that there were only enough
   banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defence
   network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers.

   In addition, three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their
   contributions to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, ennobled as
   feudal princes (藩王), and given governorships over vast territories in
   Southern China. The chief of these was Wu Sangui (吳三桂), who was given
   the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou, while generals Shang Kexi (尚可喜)
   and Geng Zhongming (耿仲明) were given the Guangdong and Fujian provinces,
   respectively.

   As the years went by, the three feudal lords and their territories
   inevitably became increasingly autonomous. Finally, in 1673, Shang Kexi
   petitioned Kangxi Emperor, stating his desire to retire to his hometown
   in Liaodong (遼東) province and nominating his son as his successor. The
   young emperor granted his retirement, but denied the heredity of his
   fief. In reaction, the two other generals decided to petition for their
   own retirements to test Kangxi's resolve, thinking that he would not
   risk offending them. The move backfired as the young emperor called
   their bluff by accepting their requests and ordering all three fiefdoms
   to be reverted back to the crown.

   Faced with the stripping of their powers, Wu Sangui felt he had no
   choice but to rise up in revolt. He was joined by Geng Zhongming and by
   Shang Kexi's son Shang Zhixin (尚之信). The ensuing rebellion lasted for
   eight years. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they managed to
   extend their control as far north as the Yangtze River (長江).
   Ultimately, though, the Qing government was able to put down the
   rebellion and exert control over all of southern China. The rebellion
   would be known in Chinese history as the Revolt of the Three
   Feudatories.

   To consolidate the empire, Kangxi Emperor personally led China on a
   series of military campaigns against Tibet, the Dzungars, and later
   Russia. He arranged the marriage of his daughter to the Mongol Khan
   Gordhun to avoid a military conflict. Gordhun's military campaign
   against the Qing failed, further strengthening the Empire. Taiwan was
   also conquered by Qing Empire forces in 1683 from Zheng Jing's son,
   Zheng Ke-Shuang; the former (his grandfather Koxinga) had conquered it
   from the Dutch colonists. By the end of the 17th century, China was at
   the height of its most power since the early Ming Dynasty.

   Kangxi Emperor also handled many Jesuit Missionaries that came to China
   hoping for mass conversions. Although they failed in their attempt,
   Kangxi peacefully kept the missionaries in Beijing.

The Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors

   Pilgrim flask, porcelain with underglaze blue and iron-red decoration.
   Qing dynasty, Qianlong period in the 18th century.
   Enlarge
   Pilgrim flask, porcelain with underglaze blue and iron-red decoration.
   Qing dynasty, Qianlong period in the 18th century.

   The reigns of the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1723 - 1735) and his son the
   Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735 - 1796) marked the height of Qing's power.
   During this period, the Qing Dynasty ruled over 13 million square
   kilometres of territory.

   After the Kangxi Emperor's death in the winter of 1722, his fourth son
   Prince Yong (雍親王) succeeded him as the Yongzheng Emperor. Yongzheng
   remained a controversial character because of rumours about him
   usurping the throne, and in the late Kangxi years, he was involved in
   great political struggles with his brothers. Yongzheng was a
   hardworking administrator who ruled with an iron hand. His first big
   step towards a stronger regime came when he brought the State
   Examination System back to its original standards. In 1724, he cracked
   down on illegal exchange rates of coins, which was being manipulated by
   officials to fit their financial needs. Those who were found in
   violation of new laws on finances were removed from office, or in
   extreme cases, executed.

   Yongzheng showed a great amount of trust in Han officials, and
   appointed many of his proteges to prestigious positions. Nian Gengyao
   was appointed to lead a military campaign in place of his brother Yinti
   in Qinghai. Nian's arrogant actions, however, led to his downfall in
   1726. Yongzheng's reign saw consolidation of imperial power at its
   height in Chinese history. More territory was incorporated in the
   Northwest. A toughened stance was directed towards corrupt officials,
   and Yongzheng led the creation of a Grand Council, which grew to become
   the de facto Cabinet for the rest of the dynasty.

   The Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735. This was followed by the succession
   of his son Prince Bao (寶親王) as the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong was known
   as an able general. Succeeding the throne at the age of 24, Qianlong
   personally led the military in campaigns near Xinjiang and Mongolia.
   Revolts and uprisings in Sichuan and parts of southern China were
   successfully put down.

   Around forty years into Qianlong's reign, the Qing government saw a
   return of rampant corruption. The official Heshen was arguably one of
   the most corrupt in the entire Qing Dynasty. He was eventually forced
   into committing suicide by Qianlong's son, the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796
   - 1820).

Rebellion, unrest and external pressure

   A common view of 19th century China is that it was an era in which Qing
   control weakened and prosperity diminished. Indeed, China suffered
   massive social strife, economic stagnation, and explosive population
   growth which placed an increasing strain on the food supply. Historians
   offer various explanations for these events, but the basic idea is that
   Qing power was, over the course of the century, faced with internal
   problems and foreign pressure which were simply too much for the
   antiquated Chinese government, bureaucracy, and economy to deal with.
   Flag of Qing Dynasty, 1890-1912
   Enlarge
   Flag of Qing Dynasty, 1890-1912

   The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-nineteenth century was the first major
   instance of anti-Manchu sentiment threatening the stability of the Qing
   dynasty, a phenomenon that would only increase in the following years.
   However, the horrific number of casualties of this rebellion--as many
   as 30 million people--and the complete devastation of a huge area in
   the south of the country have to a large extent been overshadowed by
   another significant conflict. Although not nearly as bloody, the
   outside world and its ideas and technologies had a tremendous and
   ultimately revolutionary impact on an increasingly weak and uncertain
   Qing state.

   One of the major issues affecting nineteenth-century China was the
   question of how to deal with other countries. Prior to the
   nineteenth-century, the Chinese empire was the hegemonic power in Asia.
   Under its imperial theory, the Chinese emperor had the rights to rule "
   all under heaven". Depending on the period and dynasty, it either ruled
   territories directly or neighbors fell under its hierarchical tributary
   system. Historians often refer to the underlying concept of Chinese
   empire as "an empire with no boundary." However, the eighteenth century
   saw the European empires gradually expand across the world, as European
   states developed stronger economies built on maritime trade. European
   colonies had been established in nearby India and on the islands that
   are now part of Indonesia, whilst the Russian Empire had annexed the
   areas north of China. During the Napoleonic Wars, Great Britain
   attempted to forge an alliance with China, sending a fleet to Hong Kong
   with gifts for the Emperor, including examples of the latest European
   technologies and art. When the British delegation received a letter
   from Peking explaining that China was unimpressed with European
   achievements, and that George III was welcome to pay homage to the
   Chinese court, the deeply offended British government aborted all
   further attempts to reconcile relations with the Qing regime.

   When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, world trade rapidly increased,
   and as China's vast population offered limitless markets for European
   goods, trade between Chinese and European merchants expanded during the
   early years of the nineteenth century. This increased trade, though,
   led to increasing hostility between European governments and the Qing
   regime.

   In 1793, the Qing regime had officially stated that China had no use
   for European manufactured products. Subsequently, leading Chinese
   merchants only accepted bar silver as payment for their goods. The huge
   demand in Europe for Chinese goods such as silk, tea, and ceramics
   could only be met if European companies funnelled their limited
   supplies of silver into China. By the late 1830's, the governments of
   Great Britain and France were deeply concerned about their stockpiles
   of precious metals and sought alternate trading schemes with China -
   the foremost of which was addicting China with opium. When the Qing
   regime tried to ban the opium trade in 1838, Great Britain declared war
   on China.

   The First Opium War revealed the outdated state of the Chinese
   military. Although China's army overwhelmingly outnumbered the British,
   their technology and tactics were hopelessly inadequate for a war
   against the world's leading technological power. The Qing navy,
   composed entirely of wooden sailing junks, was no match for the
   steam-powered ironclad battleships of the Royal Navy. British soldiers,
   using modern rifles and artillery, easily outmanoeuvred and outgunned
   Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a
   decisive, humiliating blow to China. The Treaty of Nanking, which
   demanded reparation payments, allowed unrestricted European access to
   Chinese ports, and ceded the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain. It
   revealed many inadequacies in the Qing government and provoked
   widespread rebellions against the regime.

   The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanking,
   only gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping
   and Nian Rebellions. China's income fell sharply during the wars as
   vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives lost, and
   countless armies raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854,
   Great Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanking, inserting
   clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the
   creation of a permanent British embassy at Peking. This last clause
   outraged the Qing regime, who refused to sign, provoking another war
   with Britain. The Second Opium War ended in another crushing Chinese
   defeat, whilst the Treaty of Tianjin contained clauses deeply insulting
   to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be
   written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited
   access to all navigable Chinese rivers.

The rule of Empress Dowager Cixi

   Empress Dowager Cixi
   Enlarge
   Empress Dowager Cixi

   In the late 19th century, a new leader emerged. The Empress Dowager
   Cixi, concubine to the Emperor Xianfeng (r. 1850-1861), the mother of
   child emperor Tongzhi, and Aunt of Guangxu successfully controlled the
   Qing government and was the de facto leader of China for 47 years. She
   staged a coup d'état to oust the regency led by Sushun appointed by the
   late Emperor. She was known for "ruling behind the curtain" (垂簾聽政).

   By the 1860s, the Qing dynasty had put down the rebellions with the
   help of militia organized by the gentry. The Qing government then
   proceeded to deal with problem of modernization, which it attempted
   with the Self-Strengthening Movement. Several modernized armies were
   formed including the much renowned Beiyang Army; however the fleets of
   "Beiyang" were annihilated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), which
   produced calls for greater and more extensive reform. After the start
   of the 20th century, the Qing Dynasty was in a dilemma. It could
   proceed with reform and thereby alienate the conservative gentry or it
   could stall reform and thereby alienate the revolutionaries. The Qing
   Dynasty tried to follow a middle path, but proceeded to alienate
   everyone.

   Ten years into the reign of Guangxu (r. 1875 - 1908), western pressure
   on China was so great that she forcefully gave up all sorts of power.
   In 1898 Guangxu attempted the Hundred Days' Reform (百日維新/戊戌變法), in
   which new laws were put in place and some old rules were abolished.
   Newer, more progressive-minded thinkers like Kang Youwei were trusted
   and recognized conservative-minded people like Li Hongzhang were
   removed from high positions. But the ideals were stifled by Cixi and
   Guangxu was jailed in his own palace. Cixi, concentrated on
   centralizing her own power base. At the occasion of her 60th Birthday,
   she spent over 30 million taels of silver for the decorations & events,
   funds that were originally to improve the weaponry of the Beiyang Navy.

   In 1901, following the murder of the German Ambassador, the
   Eight-Nation Alliance (八國聯軍) entered China as a united military force
   for the second time. Cixi reacted by declaring war on all eight
   nations, only to lose Beijing under their control within a short period
   of time. Along with the Guangxu Emperor, she fled to Xi'an. As a
   military compensation, the Alliance listed scores of demands on the
   Qing Government, including an initial hit list which had Cixi as No. 1.
   Li Hongzhang was sent to negotiate and the Alliance backed down from
   several of the demands.

Qing government and society

   Qing China in 1892
   Enlarge
   Qing China in 1892

Politics

   The Qing were very clever in stabilizing the government. The most
   important administrative body of the Qing dynasty was the Trung Council
   which was a body composed of the emperor and high officials. The Qing
   dynasty was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which
   each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han assigned
   to it. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, for example, members of his
   family were distinguished by garments with a large circular emblem on
   the back, whereas a Han could only hope to wear clothing with a square
   emblem; this meant effectively that any guard in the court could
   immediately distinguish family members from the back view alone.

   With respect to Mongolia, Tibet, and Eastern Turkestan, like other
   dynasties before it the Qing maintained imperial control, with the
   emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and protector
   of Muslims. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of
   Xinjiang province in 1884. In response to British and Russian military
   action in Xinjiang and Tibet, the Qing sent Army units which performed
   remarkably well against British units.

   The abdication of the Qing emperor inevitably led to the controversy
   about the status of territories in Tibet and Mongolia. It was and
   remains the position of Mongols and Tibetan nationalists, that because
   they owed allegiance to the Qing monarch, that with the abdication of
   the Qing, they owed no allegiance to the new Chinese state. This
   position was rejected by the Republic of China and subsequent People's
   Republic of China which based their claims on the fact that these areas
   were integral parts of Chinese dynasties even before the Qing.
   Regardless of Hans, Manchus, Mongols, or other ethnic groups, they all
   established Sino-centric based dynasties, and claimed their legitimacy
   and history as part of imperial China over the last two thousands
   years. The Western powers accepted the latter theory, partly in order
   to prevent a scramble for China.

Bureaucracy

   Qing Dynasty vases, in the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon
   Enlarge
   Qing Dynasty vases, in the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon

   The Qing Dynasty inherited many important institutions from the
   preceding Ming dynasty. The formal structure of the Qing government
   centred around the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six
   ministries (or boards), each headed by two presidents (Ch: Shàngshū,
   尚書; Ma: Aliha amban) and assisted by four vice presidents (Ch: Shìláng,
   侍郎; Ma: Ashan i amban). In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing
   ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu
   noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the
   state examinations. The Grand Secretariat (Ch: Nèigé 內閣; Ma: Dorgi
   yamun), which had been an important policy making body during Ming,
   lost its importance during Qing and evolved into an imperial chancery.
   The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming dynasty formed
   the core of the Qing "outer court", which handled routine matters and
   was located in the southern part of the Forbidden City.

   In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of
   the empire, the Manchu Qing emperors made sure that all important
   matters were decided in the "Inner Court," which was dominated by the
   imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the
   northern part of the Forbidden City. A central part of the inner court
   was the Grand Council, a body initially in charge of military and
   intelligence matters, but which later assumed the role of supervising
   all government departments. Ministers posted to the Grand Council
   served as the emperor's privy council and they were collectively known
   as privy councillors.

   The six ministries and their respective areas of responsibilities were
   as follows:

   Board of Civil Appointments (Ch: Lìbù, 吏部; Ma: Hafan i jurgan) - The
   personnel administration of all civil officials - including evaluation,
   promotion, and dismissal. It was also in charge of the 'honours list'.

   Board of Finance (Ch: Hùbù, 户部; Ma: Boigon i jurgan) - The literal
   translation of the Chinese word 'hù'（户）is 'household'. For much of the
   Qing Dynasty's history, the government's main source of revenue came
   from taxation on landownership supplemented by official monopolies on
   essential household items such as salt and tea. Thus, in the
   predominantly agrarian Qing dynasty, the 'household' was the basis of
   imperial finance. The department was charged with revenue collection
   and the financial management of the government.

   Board of Rites (Ch: Lǐbù, 禮部; Ma: Dorolon i jurgan) - This was
   responsible for all matters concerning protocol at court, which
   included not just the periodic worshipping of ancestors and various
   gods by the Emperor -- in his capacity as the "Son of Heaven" (Tiānzǐ,
   天子), to ensure the smooth running of the empire -- but also looking
   after the welfare of visiting ambassadors from tributary nations. The
   Chinese concept of courtesy (lǐ, 礼), as taught by Confucius, was
   considered an integral part of education. An intellect was said to
   "know of books and courtesy (rites)" ("知书达礼"). Thus, the ministry's
   other function was to oversee the nationwide civil examination system
   for entrance to the bureaucracy. Because democracy was unknown to
   pre-Republican China, neo-Confucian philosophy saw state sponsored
   exams as the way to legitimize a regime by allowing the intelligentsia
   participation in an otherwise autocratic and unelected system.
   A stamp in Qing Dynasty
   Enlarge
   A stamp in Qing Dynasty

   Board of War (Ch: Bīngbù, 兵部; Ma: Coohai jurgan) - Unlike its Ming
   Dynasty predecessor, which had full control over all military matters,
   the Qing Dynasty Board of War had very limited powers. First, the Eight
   Banners were under the direct control of the Emperor and hereditary
   Manchu and Mongolian princes, leaving the ministry only with authority
   over the Green Standard Armies. Furthermore, the ministry's functions
   were purely administrative - campaigns and troop movements were
   monitored and directed by the Emperor, first through the Manchu ruling
   council, and later through the Grand Council.

   Board of Punishments (Ch: Xíngbù, 刑部; Ma: Beidere jurgan) - The Board
   of Punishments handled all legal matters, including the supervision of
   various law courts and prisons. The Qing legal framework was relatively
   weak compared to modern day legal systems, as there was no separation
   of executive and legislative branches of government. The legal system
   could be inconsistent, and, at times, arbitrary, because the emperor
   ruled by decree and had final say on all judicial outcomes. Emperors
   could (and did) overturn judgements of lower courts from time to time.
   Fairness of treatment was also an issue under the apartheid system
   practised by the Manchu government over the Han Chinese majority. To
   counter these inadequacies and keep the population in line, the Qing
   maintained a very harsh penal code towards the Han populace, but it was
   no more severe than previous Chinese dynasties.

   Board of Works (Ch: Gōngbù, 工部; Ma: Weilere jurgan) - The Board of
   Works handled all governmental building projects, including palaces,
   temples and the repairs of waterways and flood canals. It was also in
   charge of minting coinage.

   In addition to the six boards, there was a Court of Colonial Affairs
   unique to the Qing government. This institution was established to
   supervise the administration of Tibet and the Mongolian lands. As the
   empire expanded, it took over administrative responsibility of all
   minority ethnic groups living in and around the empire, including early
   contacts with Russia--then seen as a tribute nation. The office had the
   status of a full ministry and was headed by officials of equal rank.
   However, appointees were at first restricted only to candidates of
   Manchurian and Mongolian ethnicity.

   Even though the Board of Rites and the Court of Colonial Affairs
   performed some duties of a foreign office, they fell short of
   developing into a professional foreign service. This stemmed from the
   traditional imperial world view of seeing China as the centre of the
   world and viewing all foreigners as uncivilized barbarians unworthy of
   equal diplomatic status. It was not until 1861--a year after losing the
   Second Opium War to the Anglo-French coalition--that the Qing
   government bowed to foreign pressure and created a proper foreign
   affairs office known by as the Zongli Yamen. The office was originally
   intended to be temporary and was staffed by officials seconded from the
   Grand Council. However, as dealings with foreigners became increasingly
   complicated and frequent, the office grew in size and importance, aided
   by revenue from customs duties which came under its direct
   jurisdiction.

Military

Beginnings and early development

   The development of Qing military system can be divided into two broad
   periods separated by the Taiping rebellion (1850 - 1864). Early Qing
   military was rooted in the Manchu banners first developed by Nurhachi
   as a way to organize Manchurian society beyond petty clan affiliations.
   There were eight banners in all, differentiated by colours. The banners
   in their order of precedence were as follows: Yellow, Bordered Yellow
   (ie yellow banner with red border), White, Red, Bordered White,
   Bordered Red, Blue, & Bordered Blue. The Yellow, Bordered Yellow, and
   White banners were collectively known as the 'Upper Three Banners'(上三旗)
   and were under the direct command of the Emperor. Only Manchus
   belonging to the Upper Three Banners, and selected Han Chinese who had
   passed the highest level of military exams were qualified to serve as
   the Emperor's personal bodyguards. The remaining banners were known as
   'The Lower Five Banners' (下五旗) and were commanded by hereditary
   Manchurian princes descended from Nurhachi's immediate family, known
   informally as the 'Iron Cap Princes' (鐵帽子王). Together they formed the
   ruling council of the Manchu nation as well as high command of the
   army. In 1730, the Yongzheng Emperor established the Grand Council (Ch:
   Jūnjīchù 軍機處; Ma: Cooha nashūn i ba) at first to direct day to day
   military operations, but gradually Junjichu took over other military
   and administrative duties and served to centralize authority to the
   crown. However, the Iron Cap Princes continued to exercise considerable
   influence over the political and military affairs of Qing government
   well into the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.

   As Qing power expanded north of the Great Wall in the last years of the
   Ming dynasty, the banner system was expanded by Nurhachi's son and
   successor Hong Taiji to include mirrored Mongolian and Han Banners. As
   they gained control of territories formerly under Ming rule, the
   relatively small Banner armies were further augmented by the Green
   Standard Army (綠營兵) which eventually outnumbered banner troops three to
   one. The Green Standard Army so-named after the colour of their battle
   standards was made up of those ethnic Han troops previously under Ming
   command who had surrendered to the Qing. They were led by a mix of
   Banner and Green Standard officers. The Banners and Green Standard
   troops were standing armies, paid for by central government. In
   addition, regional governors from provincial down to village level
   maintained their own irregular local militias for police duties and
   disaster relief. These militias were usually granted small annual
   stipends from regional coffers for part-time service obligations. They
   received very limited military drill if at all and were not considered
   combat troops.

Peace and stagnation

   There were three different military groups, including the tuanlian,
   gentry, and the government army. During the social disorder in the
   1840-60s Canton empowered the local gentry. When the regular defence
   system failed to beat away the strong foreign armies and rebels after
   the Opium War, the Qing government had to approve the gentry control of
   local militia (tuanlian). The establishment of tuanlian eventually
   shifted the local balance of power in favour of the gentry for the
   first time. The recruitment of militia during the Taiping years placed
   new judicial and fiscal power in the hands of the local gentry.
   Moreover, after the rebels were repressed, it was difficult to get the
   local notables to give up the power in their hands, especially since
   the government was too weak to take it back at that time.

   Banner Armies were divided along ethnic lines, namely Manchurian and
   Mongolian. Although there existed a third branch of Han bannermen made
   up of those who had joined the Manchus before the establishment of the
   Qing dynasty, Han bannermen were never regarded by the government as
   equal to the other two branches due to their late addition to the
   Manchu cause as well as their Han Chinese ancestry. The nature of their
   service - mainly as infantry, artillery and sappers, was also seen as
   alien to the Manchurian nomadic traditions of fighting as cavalry.
   After the conquest the military roles played by Han Bannermen were
   quickly subsumed by the Green Standard Army. The Han Banners ceased to
   exist altogether after Emperor Yongzheng's Banner registration reforms
   aimed at cutting down imperial expenditures. The socio-military origins
   of the Banner system meant that population within each branch and their
   sub-divisions were hereditary and rigid. Only under special
   circumstances sanctioned by imperial edict were social movements
   between banners permitted. In contrast, the Green Standard Army was
   originally intended to be a professional force. However during
   protracted period of peace in China from the 18th to mid 19th century,
   recruits from farming communities dwindled, due partly to
   Neo-Confucianism's negative stance on military careers. In order to
   maintain strengths, the Green Standard Army began to internalize, and
   gradually became hereditary in practice.

   After defeating the remnants of the Ming forces, the Manchu Banner Army
   of approximately 200,000 strong at the time was evenly divided; half
   was designated the Forbidden Eight Banner Army (禁旅八旗 Jìnlǚ Bāqí)and was
   stationed in Beijing. It served both as the capital's garrison and Qing
   government's main strike force. The remainder of the Banner troops was
   distributed to guard key cities in China. These were known as the
   Territorial Eight Banner Army (駐防八旗 Zhùfáng Bāqí). The Manchu rulers,
   keenly aware of their own minority status, reinforced a strict policy
   of racial segregation between the Manchus and Mongols from Han for fear
   of their being assimilated by Han. This policy applied directly to the
   Banner garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within
   the cities they were stationed at. In cities where there were
   limitation of space such as in Qingzhou (青州), a new fortified town
   would be purposely erected to house the Banner garrison and their
   families. Beijing being the imperial seat, the Regent Dorgon had the
   entire Chinese population forcibly relocated to the southern suburbs
   later known as the "Outer Citadel" (外城 wàichéng). The northern walled
   city called "Inner Citadel" (内城 nèichéng) was portioned out to the
   remaining Manchu eight Banners, each responsibled for guarding a
   section of the Inner Citadel surrounding the Forbidden City palace
   complex (紫禁城 Zǐjìnchéng).

   The policy of posting Banner troops as territorial garrison was not to
   protect but to inspire awe in the subjugated populace at the expense of
   their expertise as cavalry. As a result, after a century of peace and
   lack of field training the Manchurian Banner troops had deteriorated
   greatly in their combat worthiness. Secondly, before the conquest the
   Manchu banner was a 'citizen' army, and its members were Manchu farmers
   and herders obligated to provide military service to the state at times
   of war. The Qing government's decision to turn the banner troops into a
   professional force whose every welfare and need was met by state
   coffers brought wealth, and with it corruption, to the rank and file of
   the Manchu Banners and hastened its decline as a fighting force. This
   was mirrored by a similar decline in the Green Standard Army. During
   peace time, soldiering became merely a source of supplementary income.
   Soldiers and commanders alike neglected training in pursuit of their
   own economic gains. Corruption was rampant as regional unit commanders
   submitted pay and supply requisitions based on exaggerated head counts
   to the quartermaster department and pocketed the difference. When the
   Taiping rebellion broke out in 1850s the Qing Court found out belatedly
   that the Banner and Green Standards troops could neither put down
   internal rebellions nor keep foreign invaders at bay.

Transition and modernization

   General Zeng Guofan
   Enlarge
   General Zeng Guofan

   Early during the Taiping rebellion, Qing forces suffered a series of
   disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city
   of Nanjing (南京) in 1853. The rebels massacred the entire Manchu
   garrison and their families in the city and made it their capital.
   Shortly thereafter a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far
   north as the suburbs of Tianjin (天津) in what was considered Imperial
   heartlands. In desperation the court ordered a Chinese mandarin Zeng
   Guofan (曾國藩) to organize regional and village militias (Tuányǒng 團勇 and
   Xiāngyǒng 鄉勇) into a standing army to contain the rebellion. Zen's
   strategy was to rely on local gentries to raise a new type of military
   organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly
   threatened. This new force became known as the Xiang Army (湘軍), named
   after Hunan region where it was raised. Xiang Army was a hybrid of
   local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training,
   but was paid for by regional coffers and funds its commanders--mostly
   Chinese gentries--could muster. Xiang Army and its successor the "Huai"
   Army (淮軍) created by Zen's colleague and 'pupil' Li Hongzhang (李鴻章）were
   collectively called Yongying (勇營).

   Prior to forming and commanding the Xian Army, Zen had no military
   experience. Being a classically educated Mandarin his blueprint for the
   formation of the Xian Army was copied from a historical source--the
   Ming Dynasty General Qi JiGuan (戚繼光) who because of the weakness of the
   regular Ming troops had decided to form his own 'private' army to repel
   raiding Japanese pirates in the mid 16th century. Qi's doctrine relied
   heavily on Neo-Confucian ideas of binding the troops' loyalty to their
   immediate superiors and also to the regions which they were raised.
   This initially gave the troops a certain esprit de corps. However, it
   must be pointed out that Qi's Army was an ad hoc solution for a
   specific problem--combating pirates, as was Zen's original intend for
   the Xiang Army--to eradicate the Taiping rebels. However, circumstances
   saw that the Yongying system became a permanent institution within the
   Qing military, which in the long run created problems of its own for
   the beleaguered central government.
   Qing troops training in Western drill
   Enlarge
   Qing troops training in Western drill

   Firstly, Yongying system signalled the end of Manchu dominance in Qing
   military establishment. Although the Banners and Green Standard armies
   lingered on as parasites depleting resources much needed by the rest of
   Qing administration, henceforth the Yongying corps were Qing
   government's de facto first-line troops. Secondly the Yongying corps
   were financed through provincial coffers and were led by regional
   commanders. This devolution of power weakened the central government's
   grip on the whole country, and was further aggravated by foreign powers
   vying to carve up autonomous colonial territories in different parts of
   the Empire. However despite its negative effects the measure was deemed
   necessary at the time as tax revenue from provinces occupied and
   threatened by rebels had ceased to reach the by then perpetually
   cash-strapped central government. Finally, the nature of Yongying
   command structure fostered nepotism and cronyism amongst its commanders
   whom as they ascended up the bureaucratic ranks laid the seeds to
   Qing's eventual demise and the outbreak of regional " warlordism" in
   China during the first half of the twentieth century.
   Beiyang Army in training
   Enlarge
   Beiyang Army in training

   By late 19th century, China was fast descending into a semi-colonial
   state. Even the most conservative elements in the Qing court could no
   longer ignore China's military weakness in contrast to the foreign
   "barbarians" literally beating down its gates. In 1860, during the
   Second Opium War the capital Beijing was captured and the (Old) Summer
   Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force
   numbering 25,000. Although the Chinese pride themselves as the inventor
   of gunpower, and firearms had been in continual use in Chinese warfare
   since as far back as the Sung Dynasty, the advent of modern weaponry
   resulting from the European Industrial Revolution, such as the grooved
   rifle barrel (1855), Maxim gun (1885), and steam driven battleships
   (1890s) had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army
   and navy obsolete. The Qing dynasty had attempted to modernize during
   the Self-Strengthening Movement, but these efforts were in the view of
   most historians of the early and mid twentieth century, piecemeal and
   yielding little in lasting results. Various reasons for the apparent
   failure of late-Qing modernization have advanced including the lack of
   funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from
   traditional. These reasons remain disputed with some historians of the
   late 20th century and early 21st century questioning whether in fact
   the Qing did fail to modernize and emphasizing accomplishments of the
   late-Qing and the general difficulty that nations have had in economic
   development. Wakeman, Fredric. China in Disintegration.

   Losing the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 - 1895 was a watershed for the
   Qing government. Japan, a country long regarded by the Chinese as
   little more than an upstart nation of pirates, had convincingly beaten
   its larger neighbour and in the process annihilated the Qing
   government's pride and joy--it's modernized Beiyang Fleet then deemed
   to be the strongest naval force in Asia. In doing so, Japan became the
   first Asian country to join the previously exclusively western ranks of
   colonial powers. The defeat was a rude awakening to the Qing court
   especially when set in the context that it occurred a mere three
   decades after the Meiji reforms set a feudal Japan on course to emulate
   the Western nations in their economic and technological achievements.
   Finally, in December 1894, the Qing government took some concrete steps
   to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in
   westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were collectively
   called the New Army (新式陸軍). The most successful of which was the
   Beiyang Army (北洋軍) under the overall supervision and control of an
   ex-Huai Army commander, the Han Chinese general Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), who
   exploited his position to eventually become Republic president,
   dictator and finally abortive emperor of China.

Fall of the dynasty

   Yuan Shikai was an adept politician and general
   Enlarge
   Yuan Shikai was an adept politician and general

   By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun and
   continuously grown. Ci Xi and the Guangxu emperor both died in 1908,
   leaving a relatively powerless and unstable central authority. Puyi,
   the eldest son of Zaifeng, Prince Chun, was appointed successor at age
   two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. This was followed by the
   dismissal of General Yuan Shikai from his former positions of power. In
   mid 1911 Zaifeng created the "Imperial Family Cabinet", a ruling
   council of the Imperial Government almost entirely consisting of Aisin
   Gioro relatives. This brought a wide range of negative opinion from
   senior officials like Zhang Zhidong.

   The Wuchang Uprising succeeded on October 10, 1911, and was followed by
   a proclamation of a separate central government, the Republic of China,
   in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional head. Numerous provinces
   began "separating" from Qing control. Seeing a desperate situation
   unfold, the Qing government brought an unwilling Yuan Shikai back to
   military power, taking control of his Beiyang Army, with the initial
   goal of crushing the revolutionaries. After taking the position of
   Prime Minister (內閣總理大臣) and creating his own cabinet, Yuan went as far
   as to ask for the removal of Zaifeng from the regency. This removal
   later proceeded with directions from Empress Dowager Longyu.

   With Zaifeng gone, Yuan Shi-kai and his Beiyang commanders effectively
   dominated Qing politics. He reasoned that going to war would be
   unreasonable and costly, especially when noting that the Qing
   Government had a goal for constitutional monarchy. Similarly, Sun
   Yat-sen's government wanted a Republican constitutional reform, both
   aiming for the benefit of China's economy and populace. With permission
   from Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan began negotiating with Sun Yat-sen,
   who decided that his goal had been achieved in forming a republic, and
   that therefore he could allow Yuan to step into the position of
   President of the Republic. In 1912, after rounds of negotiations,
   Longyu issued the Imperial Edict bringing about the abdication of the
   child emperor Puyi.

   The collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912 brought an end to over 2000
   years of imperial China and began an extended period of instability,
   not just at the national level but in many areas of peoples' lives.
   Obvious political and economic backwardness combined with widespread
   criticism of Chinese culture led to questioning and doubt about the
   future. China's turbulent history since the overthrow of the Qing may
   be understood at least in part as an attempt to understand and recover
   significant aspects of historic Chinese culture and integrate them with
   influential new ideas that have emerged within the last century. The
   Qing dynasty is the source of much of this magnificent culture, but its
   perceived humiliations also provide much from which to learn.
   Preceded by:
   Ming Dynasty Qing Dynasty
                1644 – 1912        Succeeded by:
                            Last imperial dynasty of China
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty"
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   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
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