   #copyright

Propaganda

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Politics and government

   Propaganda is a specific type of message presentation directly aimed at
   influencing the opinions or behaviour of people, rather than
   impartially providing information.

   An appeal to one's emotions is, perhaps, the more obvious propaganda
   method, but there are varied other more subtle and insidious forms. A
   common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large
   amount). Individually propaganda functions as self-deception.
   Culturally it works within religions, politics, and economic entities
   like those that both favour and oppose globalization. Commercially it
   works within the (mass) market in the free market societies.

   Propaganda shares techniques with advertising and public relations. In
   fact, advertising and public relations can be thought of as propaganda
   that promotes a commercial product or shapes the perception of an
   organization, person or brand. A number of techniques which are based
   on research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same
   techniques can be found under logical fallacies, since propagandists
   use arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily
   valid. A few examples are: Flag-waving, Glittering generalities,
   Intentional vagueness, Oversimplification, Rationalization, Red
   herring, Slogans, Stereotyping, Testimonial, Unstated assumption, and
   bandwagon.

   In order to solidify the meaning of propaganda as distinct from certain
   types of advertising and public relations, it is helpful to mention
   Sheryl Tuttle Ross’s Epistemic Merit Model of propaganda. This model
   states that an important characteristic of propaganda is that its
   message has a flawed epistemology: in other words, that it is
   epistemically defective. "We can say that a message, M, is
   epistemically defective if either it is false, inappropriate, or
   connected to other beliefs that are inapt, misleading, or unwarranted."
   To consider a message's epistemology also introduces the added
   consideration of the context in which a message is delivered. For
   example, a political campaign aid that in some way alludes to local
   racial politics visually without making any overt statements in regard
   to those politics would still be considered epistemically defective and
   therefore might count as propaganda, even though nothing false or
   inflammatory was said. Since propaganda can sometimes be subtle and
   slippery, using the Epistemic Merit Model can aid in analysis and in
   personal opinion.

   In the East, the term propaganda now overlaps with distinct terms like
   indoctrination (ideological views established by repetition rather than
   verification) and mass suggestion (broader strategic methods). In
   practice, the terms are often used synonymously. Historically, the most
   common use of the term propaganda started to be in the religious
   context of the Catholic Church and evolved to be more common in
   political contexts, in particular to refer to certain efforts sponsored
   by governments, political groups, but also often covert interests. In
   the early 20th century the term propaganda was also used by the
   founders of the nascent public relations industry to describe their
   activities; this usage died out around the time of World War II, as the
   industry started to avoid the word, given the pejorative connotation it
   had acquired.

   Literally translated from the Latin gerundive as "things which must be
   disseminated," in some cultures the term is neutral or even positive,
   while in others the term has acquired a strong negative connotation.
   Its connotations can also vary over time. For example, in Portuguese
   and some Spanish language speaking countries, particularly in the
   Southern Cone, the word "propaganda" usually means the most common
   manipulation of information — "advertising". In English, "propaganda"
   was originally a neutral term used to describe the dissemination of
   information in favour of any given cause. During the 20th century,
   however, the term acquired a thoroughly negative meaning in western
   countries, of equalling the intentional dissemination of false, but
   perhaps "compelling", claims supporting or justifying nefarious
   political ideologies. This redefinition arose because both the Soviet
   Union and Germany's government under Hitler admitted explicitly to
   using propaganda favoring, respectively, communism and fascism, in all
   forms of public expression. As these ideologies were antipathetic to
   English-language and other western societies, the negative feelings
   toward them came to be projected into the word "propaganda" itself.
   Nowadays nobody admits doing propaganda but, on the other side,
   everybody accuses the opponent of using propaganda, whenever there is
   an opponent in question.

   At the left, right, or mainstream, propaganda knows no borders; as is
   detailed by Roderick Hindery. Hindery further argues that debates about
   most social issues can be productively revisited in the context of
   asking "what is or is not propaganda?" Not to be overlooked is the link
   between propaganda, indoctrination, and terrorism/counterterrorism.
   Mere threats to destroy are often as socially disruptive as physical
   devastation itself.
   U.S. propaganda poster, which warns against civilians sharing
   information on troop movements (National Archives)
   Enlarge
   U.S. propaganda poster, which warns against civilians sharing
   information on troop movements ( National Archives)

Etymology

   Soviet Propaganda Poster during the Great Patriotic War. The text reads
   "Red Army Soldier - SAVE US!"
   Enlarge
   Soviet Propaganda Poster during the Great Patriotic War. The text reads
   "Red Army Soldier - SAVE US!"

   In late Latin, propaganda meant "things to be propagated". In 1622,
   shortly after the start of the Thirty Years' War, Pope Gregory XV
   founded the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide ("Congregation for
   Propagating the Faith"), a committee of Cardinals with the duty of
   overseeing the propagation of Christianity by missionaries sent to
   non-Catholic countries. Therefore, the term itself originates with this
   Roman Catholic Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith
   (sacra congregatio christiano nomini propagando or, briefly, propaganda
   fide), the department of the pontifical administration charged with the
   spread of Catholicism and with the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs
   in non-Catholic countries (mission territory). The actual Latin stem
   propagand- conveys a sense of "that which ought to be spread".
   Originally the term was not intended to refer to misleading
   information. The modern sense dates from World War I, when it evolved
   to the field of politics, and was not originally pejorative.

Purpose of propaganda

   The aim of propaganda is to influence people's opinions or behaviors
   actively, rather than merely to communicate the facts about something.
   For example, propaganda might be used to garner either support or
   disapproval of a certain position, rather than to simply present the
   position, or to try to convince people to buy something, rather than to
   simply let them know there is some thing on the market. What separates
   propaganda from "normal" communication is in ways by which the message
   attempts to shape opinion or behaviour, which are often subtle and
   insidious among other characteristics. For example, propaganda is often
   presented in a way that attempts to deliberately evoke a strong
   emotion, especially by suggesting illogical (or non-intuitive)
   relationships between concepts or objects (for instance between a
   “good” car and an attractive woman or a sex symbol). An appeal to one's
   emotions is, perhaps, a more obvious, and the most common propaganda
   method than those utilized by some other more subtle and insidious
   forms. For instance, propaganda may be transmitted indirectly or
   implicitly, through an ostensibly fair and balanced debate or argument.
   This can be done to great effect in conjunction with a broadly
   targeted, broadcast news format. In such a setting, techniques like, "
   red herring", and other ploys (such as Ignoratio elenchi), are often
   used to divert the audience from a critical issue, while the intended
   message is suggested through indirect means. This sophisticated type of
   diversion utilizes the appearance of lively debate within, what is
   actually, a carefully focused spectrum, to generate and justify
   deliberately conceived assumptions. This technique avoids the
   distinctively biased appearance of one sided rhetoric, and works by
   presenting a contrived premise for an argument as if it were a
   universally accepted and obvious truth, so that the audience naturally
   assumes it to be correct. By maintaining the range of debate in such a
   way that it appears inclusive of differing points of view, so as to
   suggest fairness and balance, the suppositions suggested become
   accepted as fact. Here is such an example of a hypothetical situation
   in which the opposing viewpoints are supposedly represented: the hawk
   (see: hawkish) says, "we must stay the course", and the dove says, "The
   war is a disaster and a failure", to which the hawk responds, "In war
   things seldom go smoothly and we must not let setbacks affect our
   determination", the dove retorts, "setbacks are setbacks, but failures
   are failures." As one can see, the actual validity of the war is not
   discussed and is never in contention. One may naturally assume that the
   war was not fundamentally wrong, but just the result of miscalculation,
   and therefore, an error, instead of a crime. Thus, by maintaining the
   appearance of equitable discourse in such debates, and through
   continuous inculcation, such focused arguments succeed in compelling
   the audience to logically deduce that the presupposions of debate are
   unequivocal truisms of the given subject.

   The method of propaganda is essential to the word's meaning as well. A
   message does not have to be untrue to qualify as propaganda.

   In fact, the message in modern propaganda is often not blatantly
   untrue. But even if the message conveys only "true" information, it
   will generally contain partisan bias and fail to present a complete and
   balanced consideration of the issue. Another common characteristic of
   propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). For example, a
   propagandist may seek to influence opinion by attempting to get a
   message heard in as many places as possible, and as often as possible.
   The intention of this approach is to a) reinforce an idea through
   repetition, and b) exclude or "drown out" any alternative ideas.
   U.S. Propaganda from WWII, urging citizens to increase production. The
   heads that appear are those of Adolf Hitler and Hideki Tojo
   Enlarge
   U.S. Propaganda from WWII, urging citizens to increase production. The
   heads that appear are those of Adolf Hitler and Hideki Tojo

   In English, the word "propaganda" now carries strong negative (as well
   as political, mainly) connotations, although it has not always done so.
   It was formerly common for political organizations, as it had started
   to be for the advertising and public relations industry, to refer to
   their own material as propaganda. Because of the negative connotations
   the word has gained, nowadays nobody admits doing propaganda but, on
   the other side, everybody accuses the opponent of doing propaganda,
   whenever there is an opponent in question. Other languages, however, do
   not necessarily regard the term as derogatory and hence usage may lead
   to misunderstanding in communications with non-native English speakers.
   For example, in Portuguese and some Spanish language speaking
   countries, particularly in the Southern Cone, the word "propaganda"
   usually means "advertising" (the most common manipulation of
   information).

   Famed public relations pioneer Edward L. Bernays in his classic studies
   eloquently describes propaganda as the purpose of communications. In
   Crystallizing Public Opinion, for example, he dismisses the semantic
   differentiations (“Education is valuable, commendable, enlightening,
   instructive. Propaganda is insidious, dishonest, underhanded,
   misleading.”) and instead concentrates on purposes. He writes (p. 212),
   “Each of these nouns carries with it social and moral implications. . .
   . The only difference between ‘propaganda’ and ‘education,’ really, is
   in the point of view. The advocacy of what we believe in is education.
   The advocacy of what we don’t believe in is propaganda.”

   The reason propaganda exists and is so widespread is because it serves
   various social purposes, necessary ones, often popular yet potentially
   corrupting. Many institutions such as media, private corporations and
   government itself are literally propaganda-addicts, co-dependent on
   each other and the fueling influence of the propaganda system that they
   help create and maintain. Propagandists have an advantage through
   knowing what they want to promote and to whom, and although they often
   resort to various two-way forms of communication this is done to make
   sure their one-sided purposes are achieved.

Types of propaganda

   Propaganda shares techniques with advertising and public relations. In
   fact, advertising and public relations can be thought of as propaganda
   that promotes a commercial product or shapes the perception of an
   organization, person or brand, though in post-WWII usage the word
   "propaganda" more typically refers to political or nationalist uses of
   these techniques or to the promotion of a set of ideas, since the term
   had gained a pejorative meaning, which commercial and government
   entities couldn’t accept. The refusal phenomenon was eventually to be
   seen in politics itself by the substitution of ‘political marketing’
   and other designations for ‘political propaganda’.

   Propaganda also has much in common with public information campaigns by
   governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain
   forms of behaviour (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not
   littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in
   propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of leaflets, posters, TV and
   radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other medium.

   In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal
   (imposed by law) distinction between advertising (a type of overt
   propaganda) and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm
   of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda."

   Journalistic theory generally holds that news items should be
   objective, giving the reader an accurate background and analysis of the
   subject at hand. On the other hand, advertisements evolved from the
   traditional commercial advertisements to include also a new type in the
   form of paid articles or broadcasts disguised as news. These generally
   present an issue in a very subjective and often misleading light,
   primarily meant to persuade rather than inform. Normally they use only
   subtle propaganda techniques and not the more obvious ones used in
   traditional commercial advertisements. If the reader believes that a
   paid advertisement is in fact a news item, the message the advertiser
   is trying to communicate will be more easily "believed" or
   "internalized." Such advertisements are considered obvious examples of
   "covert" propaganda because they take on the appearance of objective
   information rather than the appearance of propaganda, which is
   misleading. Federal law specifically mandates that any advertisement
   appearing in the format of a news item must state that the item is in
   fact a paid advertisement. The Bush Administration has come under fire
   for allegedly producing and disseminating covert propaganda in the form
   of television programs, aired in the United States, which appeared to
   be legitimate news broadcasts and did not include any information
   signifying that the programs were not generated by a private-sector
   news source.
   A series of American propaganda posters during World War II appealed to
   servicemen's patriotism to protect themselves from venereal disease.
   The text at the bottom of the poster reads, "You can't beat the Axis if
   you get VD".
   Enlarge
   A series of American propaganda posters during World War II appealed to
   servicemen's patriotism to protect themselves from venereal disease.
   The text at the bottom of the poster reads, "You can't beat the Axis if
   you get VD".

   Propaganda, in a narrower use of the term, connotates deliberately
   false or misleading information that supports or furthers a political
   (but not only) cause or the interests of those with power. The
   propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or
   situation for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in
   ways that are desirable to the interest group. Propaganda, in this
   sense, serves as a corollary to censorship in which the same purpose is
   achieved, not by filling people's minds with approved information, but
   by preventing people from being confronted with opposing points of
   view. What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy is the
   willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding
   through deception and confusion rather than persuasion and
   understanding. The leaders of an organization know the information to
   be one sided or untrue, but this may not be true for the rank and file
   members who help to disseminate the propaganda.

   More in line with the religious roots of the term, it is also used
   widely in the debates about new religious movements (NRMs), both by
   people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter
   pejoratively call these NRMs cults. Anti-cult activists and countercult
   activists accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using
   propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social
   scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and CESNUR affiliated
   scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the
   anti-cult movement of making these unusual religious movements look bad
   without sufficient reasons.

   Propaganda is a mighty weapon in war. In this case its aim is usually
   to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either
   internal or external. The technique is to create a false image in the
   mind. This can be done by using special words, special avoidance of
   words or by saying that the enemy is responsible for certain things he
   never did. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the
   enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be
   based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of
   their nation is just.

   Propaganda is also one of the methods used in psychological warfare,
   which may also involve false flag operations.

   The term propaganda may also refer to false information meant to
   reinforce the mindsets of people who already believe as the
   propagandist wishes. The assumption is that, if people believe
   something false, they will constantly be assailed by doubts. Since
   these doubts are unpleasant (see cognitive dissonance), people will be
   eager to have them extinguished, and are therefore receptive to the
   reassurances of those in power. For this reason propaganda is often
   addressed to people who are already sympathetic to the agenda. This
   process of reinforcement uses an individual's predisposition to
   self-select "agreeable" information sources as a mechanism for
   maintaining control.
   US Office for War Information, propaganda message: working less helps
   our enemies
   Enlarge
   US Office for War Information, propaganda message: working less helps
   our enemies

   Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the
   message. White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified
   source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as
   standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an
   argument. Black propaganda is identified as being from one source, but
   is in fact from another. This is most commonly to disguise the true
   origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country or from an
   organization with a negative public image. Grey propaganda is
   propaganda without any identifiable source or author. In scale, these
   different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of
   true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For
   example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may
   slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to grey
   propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some
   level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often
   unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance
   of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the
   very campaign the black propagandist supported.

   Propaganda may be administered in very insidious ways. For instance,
   disparaging disinformation about the history of certain groups or
   foreign countries may be encouraged or tolerated in the educational
   system. Since few people actually double-check what they learn at
   school, such disinformation will be repeated by journalists as well as
   parents, thus reinforcing the idea that the disinformation item is
   really a "well-known fact," even though no one repeating the myth is
   able to point to an authoritative source. The disinformation is then
   recycled in the media and in the educational system, without the need
   for direct governmental intervention on the media.

   Such permeating propaganda may be used for political goals: by giving
   citizens a false impression of the quality or policies of their
   country, they may be incited to reject certain proposals or certain
   remarks or ignore the experience of others.

   See also: black propaganda, marketing, advertising

Techniques of propaganda transmission

   United States Army 312th PSYOP Company passes out leaflets and
   broadcasts messages in Al Kut, Iraq on May 2, 2003.
   Enlarge
   United States Army 312th PSYOP Company passes out leaflets and
   broadcasts messages in Al Kut, Iraq on May 2, 2003.

   Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports,
   government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets,
   movies, radio, television, and posters. In the case of radio and
   television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show
   segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as
   long-running advertorials. The magazine Tricontinental, issued by the
   Cuban OSPAAAL organization, folds propaganda posters and places one in
   each copy, allowing a very broad distribution of pro-Fidel Castro
   propaganda.

   Ideally a propaganda campaign will follow a strategic transmission
   pattern to fully indoctrinate a group. This may begin with a simple
   transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an
   advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how
   to obtain more information, via a web site, hotline, radio program, et
   cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The
   strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient
   to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information
   seeker to opinion leader through indoctrination. A successful
   propaganda campaign includes this cyclical meme-reproducing process.

Techniques of propaganda generation

   A number of techniques which are based on social psychological research
   are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques can be
   found under logical fallacies, since propagandists use arguments that,
   while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid.

   Some time has been spent analyzing the means by which propaganda
   messages are transmitted. That work is important but it is clear that
   information dissemination strategies only become propaganda strategies
   when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages
   is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those
   messages are spread. That is why it is essential to have some knowledge
   of the following techniques for generating propaganda:
     * Ad Hominem: A Latin phrase which has come to mean attacking your
       opponent
     * Appeal to authority: Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to
       support a position idea, argument, or course of action.
     * Appeal to fear: Appeals to fear seek to build support by instilling
       fear in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels
       exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the
       Allies sought the extermination of the German people.
     * Appeal to Prejudice: Using loaded or emotive terms to attach value
       or moral goodness to believing the proposition. "A reasonable
       person would agree that our income tax is too low."
     * Argumentum ad nauseam: Uses tireless repetition. An idea once
       repeated enough times, is taken as the truth. Works best when media
       sources are limited and controlled by the propagator.
     * Bandwagon: Bandwagon and inevitable-victory appeals attempt to
       persuade the target audience to take the course of action that
       "everyone else is taking."
          + Inevitable victory: invites those not already on the bandwagon
            to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those
            already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured
            that staying aboard is their best course of action.
          + Join the crowd: This technique reinforces people's natural
            desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to
            convince the audience that a program is an expression of an
            irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best
            interest to join.
     * Black-and-White fallacy: Presenting only two choices, with the
       product or idea being propagated as the better choice. (Eg. You are
       either with us or with the evil enemy)
     * Common man: The "'plain folks'" or "common man" approach attempts
       to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect
       the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the
       confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner
       and style of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary
       language and mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face
       and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their
       point of view with that of the average person.
     * Demonizing the “enemy”: Projecting a person or idea as the "enemy"
       through suggestion or false accusations.

   World War I poster by Winsor McCay, urging Americans to buy Liberty
   Bonds
   Enlarge
   World War I poster by Winsor McCay, urging Americans to buy Liberty
   Bonds
     * Direct order: This technique hopes to simplify the decision making
       process. The propagandist uses images and words to tell the
       audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other
       possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order,
       overlapping it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not
       necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I want you" image is an example of this
       technique.
     * Euphoria: The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness
       in lieu of spreading more sadness, or using a good event to try to
       cover up another. Or creating a celebrateable event in the hopes of
       boosting morale. Euphoria can be used to take one's mind from a
       worse feeling. i.e. a holiday or parade.
     * Falsifying information: The creation or deletion of information
       from public records, in the purpose of making a false record of an
       event or the actions of a person during a court session, or
       possibly a battle, etc. Pseudoscience is often used in this way.
     * Flag-waving: An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that
       doing so will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a
       group, country, or idea. The feeling of patriotism which this
       technique attempts to inspire may diminish or entirely omit one's
       capability for rational examination of the matter in question.
     * Glittering generalities: Glittering generalities are emotionally
       appealing words applied to a product or idea, but which present no
       concrete argument or analysis. A famous example is the campaign
       slogan "Ford has a better idea!"
     * Intentional vagueness: Generalities are deliberately vague so that
       the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is
       to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing
       their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or
       application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own
       interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit
       idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience
       foregoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity,
       reasonableness and application is not considered.

     * Obtain disapproval or Reductio ad Hitlerum: This technique is used
       to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by
       suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or
       held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group which
       supports a certain policy is led to believe that undesirable,
       subversive, or contemptible people support the same policy, then
       the members of the group may decide to change their original
       position.
     * Oversimplification: Favorable generalities are used to provide
       simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military
       problems.
     * Quotes out of Context: Selective editing of quotes which can change
       meanings. Political "documentaries" often make use of this
       technique.
     * Rationalization: Individuals or groups may use favorable
       generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and
       pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.
     * Red herring: Presenting data that is irrelevant, then claiming that
       it validates your argument.
     * Scapegoating: Assigning blame to an individual or group that isn't
       really responsible, thus alleviating feelings of guilt from
       responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to
       fix the problem for which blame is being assigned.
     * Slogans: A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include
       labeling and stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to
       support reasoned ideas, in practice they tend to act only as
       emotional appeals. For example, "blood for oil" or "cut and run"
       are slogans used by those who view the USA's current situation in
       Iraq with disfavor. Similarly, the names of the military campaigns,
       such as "enduring freedom" or "just cause", may also be regarded to
       be slogans, devised to prevent free thought on the issues.
     * Stereotyping or Name Calling or Labeling: This technique attempts
       to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the
       propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates,
       loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign
       country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that
       the reader expects, even though they are far from being
       representative of the whole country or group; such reporting often
       focuses on the anecdotal.
     * Testimonial: Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context,
       especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action,
       program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert,
       respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the
       statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official
       sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda
       message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to
       identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's
       opinions and beliefs as its own. See also, damaging quotation

   Soldier loads a "leaflet bomb" during the Korean war.
   Enlarge
   Soldier loads a "leaflet bomb" during the Korean war.
     * Transfer: Also known as Association, this is a technique of
       projecting positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of a
       person, entity, object, or value (an individual, group,
       organization, nation, patriotism, etc.) to another to make the
       second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional
       response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized
       authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes
       symbols (for example, the Swastika used in Nazi Germany, originally
       a symbol for health and prosperity) superimposed over other visual
       images. An example of common use of this technique in America is
       for the President to be filmed or photographed in front of the
       American flag.
     * Unstated assumption: This technique is used when the propaganda
       concept that the propagandist intends to transmit would seem less
       credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead repeatedly
       assumed or implied.
     * Virtue words: These are words in the value system of the target
       audience which tend to produce a positive image when attached to a
       person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership,
       freedom, etc. are virtue words. See "" Transfer"".

   See also: doublespeak, meme, cult of personality, spin, demonization,
   factoid

The propaganda model

   The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam
   Chomsky that alleges systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to
   explain them in terms of structural economic causes.

   First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: the Political
   Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda model views the private media
   as businesses selling a product — readers and audiences (rather than
   news) — to other businesses (advertisers). The theory postulates five
   general classes of "filters" that determine the type of news that is
   presented in news media. These five are:
    1. Ownership of the medium
    2. Medium's funding sources
    3. Sourcing
    4. Flak
    5. Anti-communist ideology

   The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally
   regarded by the authors as being the most important.

   Although the model was based mainly on the characterization of United
   States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally
   applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and
   organizing principles which the model postulates as the cause of media
   biases. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Chomsky stated
   that the new filter replacing communism would be terrorism and Islam.

History of propaganda

   Propaganda has been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded
   evidence exists.

Ancient propaganda

   The Behistun Inscription (c. 515 BCE) detailing the rise of Darius I to
   the Persian throne, can be seen as an early example of propaganda.

   The Arthashastra written by Chanakya (c. 350 - 283 BCE), a professor of
   political science at Takshashila University and a prime minister of the
   Maurya Empire, discusses propaganda in detail, such as how to spread
   propaganda and how to apply it in warfare. His student Chandragupta
   Maurya (c. 340 - 293 BCE), founder of the Maurya Empire, employed these
   methods during his rise to power.

   The writings of Romans such as Livy (c. 59 BCE - 17 CE) are considered
   masterpieces of pro-Roman statist propaganda.

19th and 20th centuries

   U.S. Propaganda from WWII, Depicting Hitler as foolish
   Enlarge
   U.S. Propaganda from WWII, Depicting Hitler as foolish

   Gabriel Tarde's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon's The
   Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first
   codifications of propaganda techniques, which influenced many writers
   afterward, including Sigmund Freud. Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily
   influenced by Le Bon's theories. Journalist Walter Lippman, in Public
   Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as psychologist
   Edward Bernays, a nephew of Freud, early in the 20th century. During
   World War I, Lippman and Bernays were hired by then United States
   President, Woodrow Wilson, to participate in the Creel Commission, the
   mission of which was to sway popular opinion in favour of entering the
   war, on the side of the United Kingdom. The Creel Commission provided
   themes for speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions, and also
   encouraged censorship of the American press. The Commission was so
   unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing
   funding to organize and archive its papers.

   The war propaganda campaign of Lippman and Bernays produced within six
   months such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress
   American business (and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential
   of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion. Bernays coined the
   terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in
   practical propaganda work.

   The current public relations industry is a direct outgrowth of
   Lippman's and Bernays' work and is still used extensively by the United
   States government. For the first half of the 20th century Bernays and
   Lippman themselves ran a very successful public relations firm.

   World War II saw continued use of propaganda as a weapon of war, both
   by Hitler's propagandist Joseph Goebbels and the British Political
   Warfare Executive, as well as the United States Office of War
   Information.

   In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely
   distributed a video game known as America's Army. The stated intention
   of the game is to encourage players to become interested in joining the
   U.S. Army. According to a poll by I for I Research, 30% of young people
   who had a positive view of the military said that they had developed
   that view by playing the game, Propaganda is ability to feed hungry
   person with painted food (Simonas Onaitis, Lithuanian student)

Russian revolution

   Russian revolutionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries distinguished
   two different aspects covered by the English term propaganda. Their
   terminology included two terms: Russian: агитация (agitatsiya), or
   agitation, and Russian: пропаганда, or propaganda, see agitprop
   (agitprop is not, however, limited to the Soviet Union, as it was
   considered, before the October Revolution, to be one of the fundamental
   activity of any Marxist activist; this importance of agit-prop in
   Marxist theory may also be observed today in Trotskyist circles, who
   insist on the importance of leaflets distribution).

   Soviet propaganda meant dissemination of revolutionary ideas, teachings
   of Marxism, and theoretical and practical knowledge of Marxist
   economics, while agitation meant forming favorable public opinion and
   stirring up political unrest. These activities did not carry negative
   connotations (as they usually do in English) and were encouraged.
   Expanding dimensions of state propaganda, the Bolsheviks actively used
   transportation such as trains, aircraft and other means.

   Josef Stalin's regime built the largest fixed-wing aircraft of the
   1930s, Tupolev ANT-20, exclusively for this purpose. Named after the
   famous Soviet writer Maxim Gorky who had recently returned from fascist
   Italy, it was equipped with a powerful radio set called "Voice from the
   sky", printing and leaflet-dropping machinery, radiostations,
   photographic laboratory, film projector with sound for showing movies
   in flight, library, etc. The aircraft could be disassembled and
   transported by railroad if needed. The giant aircraft set a number of
   world records.

   The GPU thunderbolt strikes the counter-revolutionary saboteur

   "Long Live World October (revolution)!"

   Bolshevik propaganda train. 1923

   ANT-20 "Maxim Gorky" propaganda aircraft in the Moscow sky

Nazi Germany

   Most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry for Public
   Enlightenment and Propaganda ( Propagandaministerium, or "Promi"
   (German abbreviation)). Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this
   ministry shortly after Hitler took power in 1933. All journalists,
   writers, and artists were required to register with one of the
   Ministry's subordinate chambers for the press, fine arts, music,
   theatre, film, literature, or radio.

   The Nazis believed in propaganda as a vital tool in achieving their
   goals. Adolf Hitler, Germany's Führer, was impressed by the power of
   Allied propaganda during World War I and believed that it had been a
   primary cause of the collapse of morale and revolts in the German home
   front and Navy in 1918 (see also: Dolchstoßlegende). Hitler would meet
   nearly every day with Goebbels to discuss the news and Goebbels would
   obtain Hitler's thoughts on the subject; Goebbels would then meet with
   senior Ministry officials and pass down the official Party line on
   world events. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval
   before their works were disseminated.

   Along with posters, the Nazis produced a number of films and books to
   spread their beliefs.

   Poster depicting Allied "liberators" as monster.

   "Mother and Child" poster for charity subscription.

   "All 10-year-olds to us."

   "The Eternal Jew" poster for a movie.

   "Mothers Fight for your Children."

   Invites Dutchmen to join the SS.

   Promotes Eugenics.

   Nazi poster portraying Adolf Hitler. Text: "Long Live Germany!"

Cold War propaganda

   Soviet propaganda poster of Lenin from 1967
   Enlarge
   Soviet propaganda poster of Lenin from 1967

   The United States and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively
   during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio
   programming to influence their own citizens, each other, and Third
   World nations. The United States Information Agency operated the Voice
   of America as an official government station. Radio Free Europe and
   Radio Liberty, which were in part supported by the Central Intelligence
   Agency, provided grey propaganda in news and entertainment programs to
   Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union respectively. The Soviet Union's
   official government station, Radio Moscow, broadcast white propaganda,
   while Radio Peace and Freedom broadcast grey propaganda. Both sides
   also broadcast black propaganda programs in periods of special crises.
   In 1948, the United Kingdom's Foreign Office created the IRD (
   Information Research Department) which took over from wartime and
   slightly post-war departments such as the Ministry of Information and
   dispensed propaganda via various media such as the BBC and publishing.
   Large image of Joseph Stalin looms over Soviets.
   Enlarge
   Large image of Joseph Stalin looms over Soviets.

   The ideological and border dispute between the Soviet Union and
   People's Republic of China resulted in a number of cross-border
   operations. One technique developed during this period was the
   "backwards transmission," in which the radio program was recorded and
   played backwards over the air. (This was done so that messages meant to
   be received by the other government could be heard, while the average
   listener could not understand the content of the program.)

   Soviet propaganda appeared in Soviet Union education, as well.
   Propaganda went so far in school that it sometimes even interfered with
   learning. When one learned history, one would never learn any history
   except for Russia's, but even that was not at all valid. There were
   often lies spread about how life in America and other Western countries
   was, and how rich the U.S.S.R. was compared to them. Also, the Soviets
   used classic novels, such as the American favorite Uncle Tom's Cabin to
   spread communist propaganda. The overall motif and message was twisted
   to an anti-American message and was fed to the schools.

   In the Americas, Cuba served as a major source and a target of
   propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and
   Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original
   programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast The Voice of Vietnam
   as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the USS Pueblo.

   One of the most insightful authors of the Cold War era was George
   Orwell, whose novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual
   textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union,
   these books are about totalitarian regimes in which language is
   constantly corrupted for political purposes. These novels were,
   ironically, used for explicit propaganda. The CIA, for example,
   secretly commissioned an animated film adaptation of Animal Farm in the
   1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its own needs.
   Another source of irony is the fact that Orwell himself was a socialist
   and did not just have left-wing totalitarian regimes in mind when he
   wrote 1984.

Afghanistan

   In the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, psychological operations tactics
   were employed to demoralize the Taliban and to win the sympathies of
   the Afghan population. At least six EC-130E Commando Solo aircraft were
   used to jam local radio transmissions and transmit replacement
   propaganda messages.

   Leaflets were also dropped throughout Afghanistan, offering rewards for
   Osama bin Laden and other individuals, portraying Americans as friends
   of Afghanistan and emphasizing various negative aspects of the Taliban.
   Another shows a picture of Mohammed Omar in a set of crosshairs with
   the words "We are watching".

Iraq

   In 2003 the American administration led by George W. Bush selectively
   chose intelligence reports which indicated the Iraqi military possessed
   what the administration referred to as Weapons of Mass Destruction.
   These reports were later found to be incorrect, and timely objections
   by intelligence experts to the misinformation were eventually revealed.
   This faulty information, and its dissemination through the American
   media, was sufficient to engage America in its largest military
   operation in decades. The motives for this selective misinformation
   campaign, and the subsequent military action, have not yet been
   documented.
   U.S.PSYOP pamphlet disseminated in Iraq. Text: "This is your future
   al-Zarqawi" and shows al-Qaeda terrorist al-Zarqawi caught in a rat
   trap.
   Enlarge
   U.S.PSYOP pamphlet disseminated in Iraq. Text: "This is your future
   al-Zarqawi" and shows al-Qaeda terrorist al-Zarqawi caught in a rat
   trap.

   During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Iraqi Information Minister
   Mohammed Saeed al-Sahaf repeatedly claimed Iraqi forces were decisively
   winning every battle. Even up to the overthrow of the Iraqi government
   at Baghdad, he maintained that the United States would soon be
   defeated, in contradiction with all other media. Due to this, he
   quickly became a cult figure in the West, and gained recognition on the
   website WeLoveTheIraqiInformationMinister.com The Iraqis, misled by his
   propaganda, on the other hand, were shocked when instead Iraq was
   defeated.

   In November 2005, various media outlets, including The Chicago Tribune
   and the Los Angeles Times, alleged that the United States military had
   manipulated news reported in Iraqi media in an effort to cast a
   favorable light on its actions while demoralizing the insurgency. Lt.
   Col. Barry Johnson, a military spokesman in Iraq, said the program is
   "an important part of countering misinformation in the news by
   insurgents", while a spokesman for Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld
   said the allegations of manipulation were troubling if true. The
   Department of Defense has confirmed the existence of the program. More
   recently, The New York Times (see external links below) published an
   article about how the Pentagon has started to use contractors with
   little experience in journalism or public relations to plant articles
   in the Iraqi press. These articles are usually written by US soldiers
   without attribution or are attributed to a non-existent organization
   called the " International Information Centre." Planting propaganda
   stories in newspapers was done by both the Allies and Central Powers in
   the First World War and the Axis and Allies in the Second; this is the
   latest version of this technique.

   In October 2006, one American media outlet allegedly propagandized the
   American public in a fashion reminiscent of the propaganda effect of
   the Tet Offensive. First, insurgents located in Iraq filmed their
   murder of American soldiers protecting Iraqi civilians. Then, CNN
   obtained the tapes from the insurgents and rebroadcast them in America
   mere weeks before national elections were to occur. The American
   President's press secretary said in response, "your network has shown
   pictures of snipers hitting Americans, which was used as a propaganda
   tool, so the fact is that — it shows real sophistication on the part of
   these guys, because it creates the impression that Americans are
   sitting ducks, and that these guys are capable, when, in fact, while
   you have a capable enemy, they're dying in much greater numbers and
   suffering much greater damage." As a result of CNN's actions, The
   Pentagon has been asked to remove embedded CNN reporters: "C-N-N has
   now served as the publicist for an enemy propaganda film featuring the
   killing of an American soldier."

Children and propaganda

   Of all the potential targets for propaganda children are the most
   vulnerable: in that they are the most unprepared for the critical
   reasoning and contextual comprehension required to determine whether a
   message is propaganda or not.

   To a degree, socialization, formal education, and standardized
   television programming can be seen as using propaganda for the purpose
   of indoctrination. Schools that utilize dogmatic, frozen world-views,
   often resort to propagandist curriculums that indoctrinate children.
   The use of propaganda in schools was highly prevalent during the 1930s
   and 1940s in Germany, as well as in Stalinist Russia.

   In Nazi Germany, the education system was thoroughly co-opted to
   indoctrinate the German youth with anti-Semitic ideology. This was
   accomplished through the National Socialist Teachers’ Union, of which
   97% of all German teachers were members in 1937. It encouraged the
   teaching of “racial theory.” Picture books for children such as Don’t
   Trust A Fox in A Green Meadow Or the Word of A Jew, The Poisonous
   Mushroom, and The Poodle-Pug-Dachshund-Pincher were widely circulated
   (over 100,000 copies of Don’t Trust A Fox… were circulated during the
   late 1930s) and contained depictions of Jews as devils, child
   molesters, and other morally charged figures. Slogans such as “Judas
   the Jew betrayed Jesus the German to the Jews” were recited in class.
   The following is an example of a propagandistic math problem
   recommended by the National Socialist Essence of Education.

     The Jews are aliens in Germany—in 1933 there were 66,06,000
     inhabitants in the German Reich, of whom 499,682 were Jews. What is
     the per cent of aliens?

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