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Printmaking

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Art

   Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on
   paper. Except in the case of Monotyping, the process is capable of
   producing multiple copies of the same piece, which is called a print.
   Each copy is known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on the other
   hand, create a unique original piece of artwork. Prints are created
   from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. Common
   types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for
   engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for
   woodcuts and linoleum for linocuts. But there are many other kinds,
   discussed below. Each print is considered an original work of art, not
   a copy. Works printed from a single plate create an edition, in modern
   times usually each signed and numbered to form a limited edition.
   Prints may also be published in book form, as Artists' Books. A single
   print could be the product of one or multiple techniques.
   mount Fuji, from the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji), color woodcut by
   Katsushika Hokusai
   mount Fuji, from the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji), colour woodcut by
   Katsushika Hokusai

Colour

   Printmakers apply color to their prints in many different ways. Often
   colour in printmaking that involves etching, screenprinting, woodcut,
   or linocut is applied by either using separate plates, blocks or
   screens or by using a reductionist approach. In multiple plate color
   techniques are a number of plates, screens or blocks produced, each
   providing a different color. Each separate plate, screen, or block will
   be inked up in a different color and applied in a particular sequence
   to produce the entire picture. On average about 3 to 4 plates are
   produced but there are occasions where a printmaker may use up to seven
   plates. Every application of another plate of color will interact with
   the colour already applied to the paper and this must be kept in mind
   when producing the separation of colors. The lightest colors are often
   applied first and then that darker colors successively until the last
   one.

   The reductionist approach to producing color is to start with a lino or
   wood block that is either blank or with a simple etching. Upon each
   printing of color the printmaker will then further cut into the lino or
   woodblock removing more material and then apply another color and
   reprint. Each successive removal of lino or wood from the block will
   expose the already printed colour to the viewer of the print.

   With some printing techniques like chine-collé or monotyping the
   printmaker may sometimes just paint into the colors they want like a
   painter would and then print.

   The subtractive colour concept is also used in offset or digital print
   and is present in bitmap or vectorial software in CMYK or other colour
   spaces.

Techniques

Overview

   Printmaking techniques can be divided into the following basic families
   or categories:
     * relief printing, where the ink goes on the original surface of the
       matrix. Relief techniques include: woodcut or woodblock as the
       Asian forms are usually known, wood engraving, linocut and
       metalcut;

     * intaglio, where the ink goes beneath the original surface of the
       matrix. Intaglio techniques include: engraving, etching, mezzotint,
       aquatint, chine-collé and drypoint;

     * planographic, where the matrix retains its entire surface, but some
       parts are treated to make the image. Planographic techniques
       include: lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques.

     * stencil, including: screen-printing and pochoir

     * Viscosity printing

   Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include
   collography and foil imaging. Digital processes include giclée,
   photographic mediums and combination of both digital process and
   conventional processes.

   Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the
   same family. For example Rembrandt's prints are usually referred to as
   "etchings" for convenience, but very often include work in engraving
   and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all.

Woodcut

   Woodcut print by Edvard Munch.
   Woodcut print by Edvard Munch.

   Woodcut, a type of relief print, is the earliest printmaking technique,
   and the only one traditionally used in the Far East. It was probably
   first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, and by the
   5th century was used in China for printing text and images on paper.
   Woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Europe, and
   slightly later in Japan. These are the two areas where woodcut has been
   most extensively used purely as a process for making images without
   text.

   The artist draws a sketch either on a plank of wood, or on paper which
   is transferred to the wood. Traditionally the artist then handed the
   work to a specialist cutter, who then uses sharp tools to carve away
   the parts of the block that he/she does not want to receive the ink.
   The raised parts of the block are inked with a brayer, then a sheet of
   paper, perhaps slightly damp, is placed over the block. The block is
   then rubbed with a baren or spoon, or is run through a press. If in
   colour, separate blocks are used for each colour.
   Artists using this technique include

   Albrecht Dürer, Werner Drewes, Hiroshige, Hokusai.

   "Melancholia I", engraving by Albrecht Dürer, one of the most important
   printmakers.
   " Melancholia I", engraving by Albrecht Dürer, one of the most
   important printmakers.

Engraving

   The process was developed in Germany in the 1430s from the engraving
   used by goldsmiths to decorate metalwork. Using the burin is a
   difficult skill to learn.

   Engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin to cut the design
   into the surface of a metal, traditionally copper, plate. Gravers come
   in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types. The
   burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is
   characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges.
   Other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used
   for texturing effects.

   The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface,
   leaving only the ink in the engraved lines. The plate is then put
   through a high-pressure printing-press together with a sheet of paper
   (often moistened to soften it). The paper picks up the ink from the
   engraved lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times;
   typically several hundred impressions (copies) could be printed before
   the plate shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be
   added to by repeating the whole process; this creates an engraving
   which exists in more than one state.

   In the 20th Century copper-plate engraving as a serious art form was
   revived by Josef Hecht and Stanley William Hayter (founder of the
   hugely influential Atelier 17 and closely associated with the revival
   of experimental printmaking in France and later in the USA)

Etching

   "The sleep of Reason creates monsters", etching and aquatint by
   Francisco Goya
   "The sleep of Reason creates monsters", etching and aquatint by
   Francisco Goya

   Etching is part of the intaglio family (along with engraving, drypoint,
   mezzotint, and aquatint.) The process is believed to have been invented
   by Daniel Hopfer (circa 1470-1536) of Augsburg, Germany, who decorated
   armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking. Etching soon
   came to challenge engraving as the most popular printmaking medium. Its
   great advantage was that, unlike engraving which requires special skill
   in metalworking, etching is relatively easy to learn for an artist
   trained in drawing.

   Etching prints are generally linear and often contain fine detail and
   contours. Lines can vary from smooth to sketchy. An etching is opposite
   of a woodcut in that the raised portions of an etching remain blank
   while the crevices hold ink. In pure etching, a metal (usually copper,
   zinc or steel) plate is covered with a waxy ground. The artist then
   scratches off the ground with a pointed etching needle where he wants a
   line to appear in the finished piece, so exposing the bare metal. The
   plate is then dipped in a bath of acid, or has acid washed over it. The
   acid "bites" into the metal, where it is exposed, leaving behind lines
   to the plate. The remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate, and
   the printing process is then just the same as for engraving.
   The Three Crosses, etching by Rembrandt
   The Three Crosses, etching by Rembrandt
   Artists using this technique include

   Albrecht Dürer, Rembrandt, Francisco Goya, Whistler, Jim Dine, Otto
   Dix, James Ensor, Lucian Freud, Paul Klee, Einar Hakonarson, Edward
   Hopper, Horst Janssen, Käthe Kollwitz, Mauricio Lasansky, Brice Marden,
   Henri Matisse, Giorgio Morandi, Pablo Picasso, Peter Milton, Paula Rego
   and Cy Twombly.

Mezzotint

   An intaglio variant of engraving where the plate first is roughened
   evenly all over; the image is then brought out by scraping smooth the
   surface, creating the image by working from dark to light. It is
   possible to create the image by only roughening the plate selectively,
   so working from light to dark.

   Mezzotint is known for the luxurious quality of its tones: first,
   because an evenly, finely roughened surface holds a lot of ink,
   allowing deep solid colors to be printed; secondly because the process
   of smoothing the texture with burin, burnisher and scraper allows fine
   gradations in tone to be developed.

   The mezzotint printmaking method was invented by Ludwig von Siegen
   (1609-1680). The process was especially widely used in England from the
   mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce portraits and other paintings.

Aquatint

   A variant of etching. Like etching, Aquatint uses the application of
   acid to make the marks in the metal plate. Where the etching technique
   uses a needle to make lines that print in black (or whatever colour ink
   is used), aquatint uses powdered resin which is acid resistant in the
   ground to create a tonal effect. The tonal variation is controlled by
   the level of acid exposure over large areas, and thus the image is
   shaped by large sections at a time.

   Goya used aquatint for most of his prints.

Drypoint

   A variant of engraving, done with a sharp point, rather than a v-shaped
   burin. While engraved lines are very smooth and hard-edged, drypoint
   scratching leaves a rough burr at the edges of each line. This burr
   gives drypoint prints a characteristically soft, and sometimes blurry,
   line quality. Because the pressure of printing quickly destroys the
   burr, drypoint is useful only for very small editions; as few as ten or
   twenty impressions. To counter this, and allow for longer print runs,
   electro-plating (here called steelfacing) has been used since the
   nineteenth century to harden the surface of a plate.

   The technique appears to have been invented by the Housebook Master, a
   south German fifteenth century artist, all of whose prints are in
   drypoint only. Among the most famous artists of the old master print:
   Albrecht Dürer produced 3 drypoints before abandoning the technique;
   Rembrandt used it frequently, but usually in conjunction with etching
   and engraving.

Lithography

   La Goulue, Lithograph poster by Toulouse-Lautrec.
   La Goulue, Lithograph poster by Toulouse-Lautrec.

   Lithography is a technique invented in 1798 by Alois Senefelder and
   based on the chemical repulsion of oil and water. A porous surface,
   normally limestone, is used; the image is drawn on the limestone with a
   greasy medium. Acid is applied, transferring the grease to the
   limestone, leaving the image 'burned' into the surface. Gum arabic, a
   water soluble substance, is then applied, sealing the surface of the
   stone not covered with the drawing medium. The stone is wetted, with
   water staying only on the surface not covered in grease-based residue
   of the drawing; the stone is then 'rolled up', meaning oil ink is
   applied with a roller covering the entire surface; since water repels
   the oil in the ink, the ink adheres only to the greasy parts, perfectly
   inking the image. A sheet of dry paper is placed on the surface, and
   the image is transferred to the paper by the pressure of the printing
   press. Lithography is known for its ability to capture fine gradations
   in shading and very small detail.

   A variant is photo-lithography, in which the image is captured by
   photographic processes on metal plates; printing is carried out in the
   same way.
   Artists using this technique include

   George Bellows, Pierre Bonnard, Honoré Daumier, M.C. Escher, Ellsworth
   Kelly, Willem de Kooning, Joan Miró, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, Pablo
   Picasso, Odilon Redon, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Stow Wengenroth

Screen-printing

   Screen-printing (also known as "screenprinting", "silk-screening", or
   "serigraphy") creates bold colour using a stencil technique. The artist
   draws an image on a piece of paper or plastic (film can also be used.)
   The image is cut out creating a stencil. (Keep in mind the pieces that
   are cut away are the areas that will be colored.) A screen is made of a
   piece of fabric (originally silk) stretched over a wood frame. The
   stencil is affixed to the screen. The screen is then placed on top of a
   piece of dry paper or fabric. Ink is then placed across the top length
   of the screen. A squeegee (rubber blade) is used to spread the ink
   across the screen, over the stencil, and onto the paper/fabric. The
   screen is lifted once the image has been transferred onto the
   paper/fabric. Each colour requires a separate stencil. The screen can
   be re-used after cleaning.
   Artists using this technique include

   Josef Albers, Chuck Close, Ralston Crawford, Robert Indiana, Roy
   Lichtenstein, Julian Opie, Robert Rauschenberg, Bridget Riley, Edward
   Ruscha, and Andy Warhol.

Digital prints

   Digital prints refers to editions of images created with a computer
   using drawings, other prints, photographs, light pen and tablet, and so
   on. These images can be printed to a variety of substrates including
   paper and cloth or plastic canvas. Accurate color reproduction is key
   to distinguishing high quality from low quality digital prints.
   Metallics (silvers, golds) are particularly difficult to reproduce
   accurately because they reflect light back to digital scanners. High
   quality digital prints typically are reproduced with very
   high-resolution data files with very high-precision printers. The
   substrate used has an effect on the final colors and cannot be ignored
   when selecting a colour palette.

   Digital images can be printed on standard desktop-printer paper and
   then transferred to traditional art papers (Velin Arch or Stonehenge
   200gsm, for example). One way to transfer an image is to place the
   printout face down upon the art paper and rub Wintergreen oil upon the
   back of the print, and pass it through a press.

   Digital prints that are stored and sold electronically are problematic
   when it comes to authorship of the print and the protection of
   pecuniary interests. Adobe Systems tried to overcome the digital
   edition problem with their Adobe Reader application.

   Electronic images are truly multiple originals as they rely upon code
   to produce the image and every copy is actually the writing of code
   upon a disk or reproduction of code. Prints produced via any other
   medium are copies and not truly original unless a process of manual
   editing of the final result or plate is applied.

   Sociologist Jean Baudrillard has had a large influence upon digital
   printmaking with theories expounded on in Simulacra and Simulation.
   Artists using this technique include

   Istvan Horkay, Zazie (surrealist)

Foil imaging

   In art, foil imaging is a printmaking technique made using the Iowa
   Foil Printer, developed by Viginia A. Myers from the commercial foil
   stamping process. This uses gold leaf and foil in the printmaking
   process.

Protective printmaking equipment

   Protective clothing is very important for printmakers who engage in
   etching. In the past many printmakers did not live far past 35 to 40
   years of age due to their exposure and soaking up of various acids and
   liquids or their inhaling of rosin from aquatinting.

   Whereas in the past printmakers used to put their plates in and out of
   acid baths with their bare hands, nowadays printmakers use industrial
   strength rubber gloves. They also wear industrial gas masks that are
   fitted with fume filters for the acid baths. Acid baths are often built
   with fumigators above them also.

   Often an emergency cold shower is nearby in case of acid spillages and
   eye wash. Some printmakers wear goggles when dealing with acid.

   The masks often have particle filters for aquatinting. Plates are put
   into an aquatinting cabinet and a fan is turned by hand blowing rosin
   up into the top of the cabinet. The rosin floats down and settles upon
   the plate (anywhere between 5 to 15 minutes until covering the plate
   properly). When the plate is taken out of the cabinet often rosin
   powder is still floating down and comes out into the area where the
   printmaker is. Should this rosin powder be inhaled it is taken into the
   lungs where it remains throughout life, without dissolving or being
   removed from the lungs. Rosin is a serious health hazard and especially
   to printmakers in the past who used to just hold their breath inside an
   aquatinting room.

   Barrier cream is often used upon a printmaker's hands both when putting
   them inside the protective gloves and if using their hands to wipe-back
   plates (remove ink from plates).

   Sterile plasters and bandages are always available especially if using
   steel plates that become extremely sharp when beveling the edges of the
   plate down so as not to tear the paper with the edges of the plate when
   passing the print through the press.

Suggested reading

     * Griffiths, Antony, Prints and Printmaking, British Museum Press,
       2nd ed, 1996 ISBN 0-7141-2608-X
     * Ivins, William Jr. Prints and Visual Communication. Cambridge:
       Harvard University Press, 1953. ISBN 0-262-59002-6
     * Gill Saunders and Rosie Miles Prints Now: Directions and
       Definitions Victoria and Albert Museum (May 1, 2006) ISBN
       1-85177-480-7

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