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Peanut

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Food and agriculture;
Plants

                    iPeanut
   Peanut (Arachis hypogea)
   Peanut (Arachis hypogea)
           Scientific classification

   Kingdom:   Plantae
   Division:  Magnoliophyta
   Class:     Magnoliopsida
   Order:     Fabales
   Family:    Fabaceae
   Subfamily: Faboideae
   Tribe:     Aeschynomeneae
   Genus:     Arachis
   Species:   A. hypogaea

                                Binomial name

   Arachis hypogaea
   L.

   The peanut, or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the legume
   family Fabaceae native to South America. It is an annual herbaceous
   plant growing to 30 to 50 cm (1 to 1 1/2 feet) tall. The leaves are
   opposite, pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal
   leaflet), each leaflet 1 to 7 cm (1/3 to 2.75 inches) long and 1 to 3
   cm (1/3 to 1 inch) broad. The flowers are a typical peaflower in shape,
   2 to 4 cm (3/4 to one and a half inches) across, yellow with reddish
   veining. After pollination, the fruit develops into a legume 3 to 7 cm
   (1 to 2 inches) long containing 2 to 3 (rarely 1 or 4) seeds, which
   forces its way underground to mature.

   Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense the fruit
   of the peanut is a woody, indehiscent legume or pod and not technically
   a nut.

   Peanuts are also known as earthnuts, goobers, goober peas, pindas, jack
   nuts, pinders, manila nuts and monkey nuts (the last of these is often
   used to mean the entire pod, not just the seeds).

Cultivation

   Evidence demonstrates that peanuts were domesticated in prehistoric
   times in South America, where wild ancestors are still found.
   Cultivation spread as far as Mesoamerica where the Spanish
   conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl ( Nahuatl="earth cacao"=peanut,
   whence Mexican Spanish, cacahuate) being offered for sale in the
   marketplace of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), as they are still offered by
   street vendors there today. The plant was later spread worldwide by
   European traders. Cultivation in the English colonies of North America
   was popularized by African Americans, who brought the Kikongo word
   "goober".

   In South America, the peanut (called there maní or amendoim in Brazil)
   is thought to have first grown in Argentina or Bolivia, where the most
   wild strains grow today.

   The peanut gained Western popularity when it came to the United States
   from Africa. It had become popular in Africa after being brought there
   from Brazil by the Portuguese.
   Peanuts, showing legumes, one split open revealing two seeds with their
   brown seed coats
   Enlarge
   Peanuts, showing legumes, one split open revealing two seeds with their
   brown seed coats

   The flower of the Arachis hypogaea is borne above ground and after it
   withers, the stalk elongates, bends down, and forces the ovary
   underground. When the seed is mature, the inner lining of the pods
   (called the seed coat) changes colour from white to a reddish brown.
   The entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil
   during harvesting.

   The pods begin in the orange veined, yellow petaled, pea-like flowers,
   which are borne in axillary clusters above ground. Following
   self-pollination (peanuts are complete inbreeders), the flowers fade.
   The stalks at the bases of the ovaries, called pegs, elongate rapidly,
   and turn downward to bury the fruits several inches in the ground to
   complete their development.

   The pods act in nutrient absorption. The fruits have wrinkled shells
   that are constricted between the two to three seeds. The mature seeds
   resemble other legume seeds, such as beans, but they have paper-thin
   seed coats, as opposed to the usual, hard legume seed coats.

   Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil. They require five months
   of warm weather, and an annual rainfall of 500 to 1000 mm (20 to 40 in)
   or the equivalent in irrigation water.

   The pods ripen 120 to 150 days after the seeds are planted. If the crop
   is harvested too early, the pods will be unripe. If they are harvested
   late, the pods will snap off at the stalk, and will remain in the soil.

   Peanuts are particularly susceptible to contamination during growth and
   storage. Poor storage of peanuts can lead to an infection by the mold
   fungus Aspergillus flavus, releasing the toxic substance aflatoxin. The
   aflatoxin producing molds exist throughout the peanut growing areas and
   may produce aflatoxin in peanuts when conditions are favorable to
   fungal growth.
   Peanut leaves and freshly dug pods
   Enlarge
   Peanut leaves and freshly dug pods

Cultivars

   Thousands of peanut cultivars are grown, with four major Cultivar
   Groups being the most popular: Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia.
   There are also Tennessee Red and Tennessee White groups. Certain
   Cultivar Groups are preferred for particular uses because of
   differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease
   resistance. For many uses the different cultivars are interchangeable.
   Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with
   some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of
   the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted
   nuts, and peanut butter. Most Runners are used to make peanut butter.

   The various types are distinguished by branching habit and branch
   length. There are numerous varieties of each type of peanut. There are
   two main growth forms, bunch and runner. Bunch types grow upright,
   while runner types grow near the ground.

   Each year new cultivars of peanuts are bred and introduced somewhere in
   the peanut belt of the U.S. or in other countries. Introducing a new
   cultivar may mean change in the planting rate, adjusting the planter,
   harvester, dryer, cleaner, sheller, and method of marketing.

Spanish group

   The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa, and in the
   southwestern and southeastern U.S. Prior to 1940, 90 % of the peanuts
   grown in Georgia were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been
   larger seeded, higher yielding, more disease resistant cultivars.
   Spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts
   and in the U.S. are now primarily grown in Oklahoma and Texas.

   Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish', 'Improved
   Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish', 'Argentine', 'Spantex', 'Spanette',
   'Shaffers Spanish', 'Natal Common (Spanish)', 'White Kernel Varieties',
   'Starr', 'Comet', 'Florispan', 'Spanhoma', 'Spancross', and 'Wilco I'.

Runner group

   Since 1940, there has been a shift to production of Runner group
   peanuts in the southeastern U.S. Runners are found in Georgia, Alabama,
   Florida, and South Carolina. This shift is due to good flavor, better
   roasting characteristics and higher yields when compared to Spanish
   types leading to food manufacturers' preference for use in peanut
   butter and salting.

   Cultivars of Runners include 'Southeastern Runner 56-15', 'Dixie
   Runner', 'Early Runner', 'Virginia Bunch 67', 'Bradford Runner',
   'Egyptian Giant' (also known as 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Giant'),
   'Rhodesian Spanish Bunch' (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), 'North
   Carolina Runner 56-15', 'Florunner', and 'Shulamit'.
   Roasted peanuts as snack food
   Enlarge
   Roasted peanuts as snack food

Virginia group

   The large seeded Virginia Group peanuts are grown in Virginia, North
   Carolina, Tennessee, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in
   popularity due to demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly
   for salting, confections, and roasting in the shells.

   Virginia Group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The
   bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of 45 to 55 cm
   (18 to 22 inches), and a spread of 70 to 80 cm (28 to 30 in), with 80
   to 90 cm (33 to 36 in) rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are
   borne within 5 to 10 cm of the base of the plant.

   Cultivars of Virginia type peanuts include NC 7, NC 9, NC 10C, NC-V 11,
   VA 93B, NC 12C, VA-C 92R, Gregory, VA 98R, Perry, Wilson, and Georgia
   Green.

Valencia group

   Valencia Group peanuts are coarse, and they have heavy reddish stems
   and large foliage. In the U.S. they are primarily grown in Eastern New
   Mexico. They are comparatively tall, having a height of 125 cm (50
   inches) and a spread of 75 cm (30 inches). Peanut pods are borne on
   pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most of the pods
   are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found
   several inches away. Valencia types are three seeded and smooth, with
   no constriction between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded
   into the pods. There are two strains, one with flesh and the other with
   red seeds. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g.

Tennessee Red and Tennessee White groups

   These are alike, except for the colour of the seed. The plants are
   similar to Valencia types, except that the stems are green to greenish
   brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion
   of kernels.

Uses

   Peanuts are found in a wide range of grocery products.
   Enlarge
   Peanuts are found in a wide range of grocery products.

   Peanuts for edible uses account for two-thirds of the total peanut
   consumption in the United States. The principal uses are salted,
   shelled nuts, peanut butter (popular in sandwiches), peanut brittle,
   candy bars, and nuts that have been roasted in the shell. Salted
   peanuts are usually roasted in oil and packed in retail size, plastic
   bags or hermetically sealed cans. Dry roasted, salted peanuts are also
   marketed in significant quantities. The primary use of peanut butter is
   in the home, but large quantities are also used in the commercial
   manufacture of sandwiches, candy, and bakery products. Boiled peanuts
   are a preparation of raw, unshelled green peanuts boiled in brine and
   typically eaten as a snack in the southern United States where most
   peanuts are grown.

   Peanut oil is often used in cooking, because it has a mild flavor and
   burns at a relatively high temperature. Under the name Plumpy'nut 100 g
   (3.5 ounces), two small bags per day are given by the World Health
   Organization as a surviving base to many children in Africa. Peanuts
   are often a major ingredient in mixed nuts because of their
   inexpensiveness compared to Brazil nuts, cashews, walnuts, and so on.
   The U.S. airline industry used to be a relatively large purchaser of
   peanuts for serving during flights (6 million pounds annually) before
   the nuts were removed from flights by many airlines (largely due to
   allergy concerns, but also due to cost).

   Peanuts are also very widely sold for garden bird feeding. Low grade or
   culled peanuts not suitable for the edible market are used in the
   production of peanut oil, seed and feed, although some owners of pet
   hookbills avoid these kinds for that reason.

   Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish,
   lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and
   nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified
   oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The
   protein portion of the oil is used in the manufacture of some textile
   fibers.

   Peanut shells are put to use in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard,
   abrasives, and fuel. They are also used to make cellulose (used in
   rayon and paper) and mucilage (glue).

   Peanut plant tops are used to make hay. The protein cake (oilcake meal)
   residue from oil processing is used as an animal feed and as a soil
   fertilizer.

Allergies

   Although many people enjoy foods made with peanuts, some people have
   severe allergic reactions. For people with peanut allergy, exposure can
   cause fatal anaphylactic shock. For these individuals, eating a single
   peanut or just breathing the dust from peanuts can cause a fatal
   reaction. An allergic reaction also can be triggered by eating foods
   that have been processed with machines that have previously processed
   peanuts, making avoiding such foods difficult.

   A theory of the development of peanut allergy has to do with the way
   that peanuts are processed in North America versus other countries like
   China and India. Peanuts are widely eaten in China and India but peanut
   allergies are almost unheard of there. According to a 2003 study,
   roasting peanuts, as more commonly done in North America, causes the
   major peanut allergen Ara h2 to become a stronger inhibitor of the
   digestive enzyme trypsin, making it more resistant to digestion.
   Additionally, this allergen has also been shown to protect Ara h1,
   another major peanut allergen, from digestion - a characteristic
   further enhanced by roasting.

   Though the allergy can last a lifetime, another 2003 study indicates
   that 23.3% of children will outgrow a peanut allergy.

   Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations
   containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded
   as conclusive. Peanut allergies have also been associated with family
   history and intake of soy products.

   Some school districts have banned peanuts, and there is now an
   experimental drug being tested to combat this allergy, called TNX-901.

   As the peanut is a member of the legume family unrelated to other nuts,
   individuals with peanut allergies may not be allergic to the other
   types of nuts, and vice-versa.

U.S. Department of Agriculture program

   George Washington Carver, an American agricultural researcher, is often
   credited with inventing 300 different uses for peanuts (which, contrary
   to popular belief, did not include peanut butter). Both the number of
   Carver's peanut products and their economic impact on the Southern
   United States economy have been greatly inflated. None of the products
   Carver originated was ever a commercial success. Carver was one of many
   USDA researchers who encouraged cotton farmers in the South to grow
   peanuts instead of, or in addition to cotton, because cotton had
   depleted so much nitrogen from the soil, and one of the peanut's
   properties as a legume is to put nitrogen back into the soil (a process
   known as nitrogen fixation). Rising demand for peanuts in the early
   1900s was not due to Carver's products but to a shortage of plant oils
   due to World War I and the growing popularity of peanut butter, roasted
   peanuts and peanut candies. Peanut products originating in the early
   1900s include many brands still sold today such as Planters peanuts
   (1906), Oh Henry! candy bar (1920), Baby Ruth candy bar (1920),
   Butterfinger candy bar (1923), Mr. Goodbar candy bar (1925), Reese's
   Peanut Butter Cup (1925), Peter Pan (peanut butter) (1928) and Skippy
   peanut butter (1932).

   Peanuts were designated by the U.S. Congress to be one of America's
   basic crops. In order to protect domestic industry by keeping prices
   artificially high, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
   conducts a Program for Peanuts. Two USDA programs for domestic peanuts
   are the Price Support Program and the Production Adjustment Program
   (National Poundage Quota). The Price Support Program consists of a
   two-tier price support system that is tied to a maximum weight quota.
   Domestic peanuts produced subject to the weight quota are supported at
   the higher of two prices, while peanuts over quota or those produced on
   farms not having a quota are supported at the lower rate. The quota
   support price acts as a floor price for domestic edible peanuts. For
   producers who fail to fill their quota in any given year, there is a
   maximum 10 % over marketing allowance for the subsequent year. Pursuant
   to the program, producers may place peanuts under nonrecourse loan with
   the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) at the designated support price
   or they may privately contract for the sale of their crop. It is also
   illegal under Federal Law to grow peanuts on more than one acre (4,000
   m²) of land for commercial consumption. This effectively creates a
   peanut monopoly, as it is not economically feasible to grow peanuts on
   only one acre (4,000 m²) of land, while drastically increasing prices.

Cultivation in China

   Although it has been suggested that a now unknown Old World species of
   peanut was cultivated in China from prehistoric times, the New World
   peanut seems to have been introduced there by Portuguese traders in the
   1600s (University of Georgia 2006) and another variety by American
   missionaries in the 1800s. They became popular and are featured in many
   Chinese dishes, often being boiled. During the 1980s peanut production
   began to increase greatly so that today (2006) China is the world's
   largest peanut producer. A major factor in this increase has been
   China's move away from a communist economic system toward a more free
   market system so that farmers are free to grow and market their crops
   as they decide (Yao 2004).

   The USDA reports:

          The Government of China does not control or intervene in peanut
          production or marketing. It does not provide subsidies, either
          direct or indirect. As an indication of the government’s lack of
          involvement in the peanut industry, China’s Ministry of
          Agriculture (MOA) did not even mention peanuts in its May 2003
          report in which it outlined its strategic development plan for
          major crops. (Butterworth 2003)

Tanganyikan groundnut scheme

   Peanuts were involved in the Tanganyika groundnut scheme, a widescale
   but unsuccessful effort by the British government to bring marginal
   lands into production in Tanganyika (now part of Tanzania). Among other
   reasons, the scheme was unsuccessful because the ground was clay-like
   and hardened after the end of the rainy season, making harvesting the
   peanuts impossible.

Trade

   The major producers/exporters of peanuts are the United States,
   Argentina, Sudan, Senegal, and Brazil. These five countries account for
   71 % of total world exports. In recent years, the United States has
   been the leading exporter of peanuts. The major peanut importers are
   the European Union (EU), Canada, and Japan. These three areas account
   for 78 % of the world's imports.

   Although India and China are the world's largest producers of peanuts,
   they account for a small part of international trade because most of
   their production is consumed domestically as peanut oil. Exports of
   peanuts from India and China are equivalent to less than 4% of world
   trade.

   Ninety percent of India's production is processed into peanut oil. Only
   a nominal amount of hand-picked select-grade peanuts are exported.
   India prohibits the importation of all oil seeds, including peanuts.

   The European Union is the largest consuming region in the world that
   does not produce peanuts. All of its consumption is supplied by
   imports. Consumption of peanuts in the EU is primarily as food, mostly
   as roasted-in-shell peanuts and as shelled peanuts used in
   confectionery and bakery products.

   The average annual U.S. imports of peanuts are less than 0.5 % of U.S.
   consumption. Two thirds of U.S. imports are roasted, unshelled peanuts.
   The major suppliers are Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Hong Kong,
   Mainland China, and Canada. The principal suppliers of shelled peanut
   imports are Argentina and Canada. Most of Canada's peanut butter is
   processed from Chinese peanuts. Imports of peanut butter from Argentina
   are in the form of a paste and must be further processed in the U.S.
   Other minor suppliers of peanut butter include Malawi, China, India,
   and Singapore.

   Approximately 50 % of all peanuts produced in the United States are
   grown within a 160 km (100 mile) radius of Dothan, Alabama. Dothan is
   home to the National Peanut Festival established in 1938 and held each
   fall to honour peanut growers and celebrate the harvest.

Full Belly Project

   The Malian peanut sheller in Uganda, 2005
   Enlarge
   The Malian peanut sheller in Uganda, 2005

   It is estimated that half-a-billion people on Earth rely on the peanut
   as their primary source of protein. Most of these people are small
   land-holding farmers in Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. The
   main factor limiting their ability to increase their output has been
   that they lack the technological infrastructure to shell peanuts at a
   cost-efficient rate. The job is usually delegated to women and
   children, who shell only about 1.5 kg per hour. In 2005 an organization
   of former Peace Corps volunteers known as the Full Belly Project
   designed an inexpensive, hand-powered peanut sheller, known as the
   "Malian peanut sheller" that can shell peanuts at around 55 kg per
   hour. The designs for the machine are in the public domain, and the
   organization hopes to create more appropriate technology for
   sustainable development in the future. Other inventions presently in
   research and development include a corn cracker and a soymilk maker.
   The main designer of the Malian peanut sheller and other Full Belly
   Project inventions is author and film technician Jock Brandis.

Nutritional value

              Peanuts
   Nutritional value per 100 g
     Energy 590 kcal   2450 kJ

   Carbohydrates            22 g
   - Dietary fibre  9 g
   Fat                      50 g
   - saturated  7 g
   - monounsaturated  25 g
   - polyunsaturated  16 g
   Protein                  24 g

   Peanuts are a rich source of proteins (roughly 30 grams per cup after
   roasting) and Monounsaturated fat. Recent research on peanuts and nuts
   in general has found anti-oxidants and other chemicals that may provide
   health benefits. Peanuts are a significant source of resveratrol, a
   chemical studied for potential anti-aging effects.

   Because peanuts are considered an incomplete protein, containing
   relatively low amounts of the essential amino acids Lysine, Cystine,
   and Methionine, it is advised to be sure that a diet or meal with
   peanuts as a staple also include complementary foods such as dairy or
   whole grain.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
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