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Pashtun people

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Peoples


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                                    Pashtuns
  (پښتون Paṣtun)
            Total population           c. 40-45 million (est.)
  Regions with significant populations Afghanistan:
                                          12,500,000

                                       Pakistan:
                                          28,000,000
                                       India:
                                          777,000
                                       Bangladesh:
                                          545,000
                                       United Arab Emirates:
                                          214,000
                                       Iran:
                                          115,000
                                       United Kingdom:
                                          88,000
                                       Turkey:
                                          55,000
                                       United States:
                                          44,000
                                       Germany:
                                          35,000
                                       France:
                                          33,000
                                       Austria:
                                          31,000
                                       Tajikistan:
                                          26,000
                                       Netherlands:
                                          26,000
                                       Canada:
                                          20,000
                                       Nepal:
                                          18,000
                Language               Pashto, Dari, Hindko
                Religion               Islam, predominantly Sunni also some Shia
         Related ethnic groups         Other Iranic peoples, Dards, Hindkowans,
                                       Nuristanis

   Pashtuns (also Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns; Pashto: پښتون Paṣtun,
   Persian: پختون Paxtun, Urdu: پشتون Pashtūn), or Pathans ( Urdu: پٹھان,
   Hindi: पठान, Paṭhān) and or ethnic Afghans are an ethno-linguistic
   group primarily in eastern and southern Afghanistan and in the North
   West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and
   Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. The Pashtuns are typically
   characterized by their language, and their adherence to Pashtunwali (a
   pre-Islamic indigenous religious code of honour and culture) and Islam.

   Pashtuns have survived a turbulent history over several millennia,
   during which they have rarely been united. Their modern past began with
   the rise of the Durrani Empire in 1747. Pashtun martial prowess has
   been renowned since Alexander the Great ran up against them in the 3rd
   century BC. The Pashtuns were one of the few groups that managed to
   impede British imperialism during the 19th century, and as a result
   were designated within the racialist category of Martial Races.
   Pashtuns played a pivotal role in the Soviet war in Afghanistan
   (1979–89), as many joined the ranks of the Mujahideen. The Pashtuns
   gained notoriety with the rise and fall of the Taliban, since they were
   the main ethnic contingent in the movement. Modern Pashtuns have been
   prominent in the rebuilding of Afghanistan and are an important
   community in Pakistan, where they are the second-largest ethnic group.

   The Pashtuns are the world's largest (patriarchal) segmentary lineage
   tribal group. The total population of the group is estimated to be at
   least 45 million, but an accurate count remains elusive because there
   has not been an official census in Afghanistan since the 1970s, and
   because of the migratory nature of many Pashtun tribes and the practice
   of secluding women in Pakistan.

Demographics

   The vast majority of Pashtuns can be found in an area stretching from
   southeastern Afghanistan to western Pakistan. Small additional colonies
   can be found in the Northern Areas, Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, Karachi
   in Pakistan as well as in other parts of Afghanistan. There are smaller
   communities in Iran and India, and a large migrant worker community in
   the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. Important metropolitan centers
   of Pashtun culture include Peshawar and Kandahar, while Kabul and
   Quetta, though having large Pashtun populations, are more mixed cities
   of cultural significance.

   Pashtuns comprise about 42% of Afghanistan's population totaling 12.5
   million and over 15.42% of Pakistan's population or 28 million. This
   suggests a total of roughly 40 million. Though no official sensus has
   ever been made in Afghanistan, some higher estimates place speakers of
   Pashto at 60 to 65% of the population. The exact measure of all of
   these figures remains uncertain, particularly those for Afghanistan,
   and are affected by approximately 3 million Afghan refugees (of which
   81.5% or 2.49 million are ethnic Pashtuns) that remain in Pakistan.

History and origins

   The history of the Pashtuns is ancient and much of it has yet to be
   recorded in contemporary times. From the 2nd millennium BCE to the
   present, Pashtun regions have seen immense migrations including Aryan
   tribes, such as Persians, Sakas, or Scythians, as well as Kushans,
   Hephthalites, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols. There are many
   conflicting theories about the origins of the Pashtun people, some
   modern and others archaic, both among historians and the Pashtuns
   themselves.

Anthropology and linguistics

   The origins of the Pashtuns are not entirely clear, but their language
   is classified as an Eastern Iranian tongue, itself a sub-branch of the
   Indo-Iranian branch of the greater Indo-European family of languages,
   and thus the Pashtuns are often classified as an Iranian peoples,
   notably as probable modern day descendants of the Scythians, an ancient
   Iranian group. According to many academics, such as Yu V. Gankovsky,
   the Pashtuns began as a, "union of largely East-Iranian tribes which
   became the initial ethnic stratum of the Pashtun ethnogenesis dates
   from the middle of the first millennium AD and is connected with the
   dissolution of the Epthalite (White Huns) confederacy." These tribes,
   who most likely spoke an early version of modern Pashto survived
   countless invasions and spread throughout the northeastern Iranian
   plateau.

   The Pashto-speaking Pashtuns refer to themselves as Pashtuns or
   Pukhtuns depending upon whether they are speakers of the southern
   dialect or northern dialect respectively. These Pashtuns compose the
   core of ethnic Pashtuns who are predominantly an Iranian people are
   found in southern and eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. Many
   Pashto-speaking Pashtuns have however intermingled with various
   invaders, neighboring groups, and migrants (as have the other Iranian
   peoples) including possibly the Ghilzai who may have mingled with
   Turkic tribes, the Durrani who have interacted considerably with the
   Tajiks (another Iranian people), and Pashtun tribes north of Peshawar
   who have mingled with Dardic groups. In terms of phenotype, the
   Pashto-speaking Pashtuns overall are predominantly a Mediterranean
   Caucasoid people, but light hair and eye colours are not uncommon,
   especially among remote mountain tribes.

Oral traditions and recent research

   In addition, some anthropologists lend credence to the oral traditions
   of the Pashtun tribes themselves. For example, according to the
   Encyclopaedia of Islam, the Theory of Pashtun descent from Israelites
   is traced to Maghzan-e-Afghani who compiled a history for Khan-e-Jehan
   Lodhi in the reign of Mughal Emperor Jehangir in the 16th century CE.
   Another book, that corresponds with most Pashtun historical records,
   Taaqati-Nasiri, states that in the 7th century a people called the Bani
   Israel settled in Ghor, southeast of Herat, Afghanistan and then
   migrated south and east. These Bani Israel references are in line with
   the commonly held view by Pashtuns that when the twelve tribes of
   Israel were dispersed (see Israel and Judah and Lost Ten Tribes), the
   tribe of Joseph, among other Hebrew tribes, settled in the region.
   Hence the term ' Yusef Zai' in Pashto translates to the 'sons of
   Joseph'. A similar story is told by Ferishta.

   Maghzan-e-Afghani's Bani-Israel theory has largely been debunked due to
   historical and linguistic inconsistencies. The oral tradition is
   believed to be a myth that grew out of a political and cultural
   struggle between Pashtuns and Mughals, which explains the historical
   backdrop for the creation of the myth, the inconsistencies of the
   mythology, and the linguistic research that refutes any Semitic
   origins.

   Other Pashtun tribes claim descent from Arabs including some even
   claiming to be descendants of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad (popularly
   referred to as sayyids). Some groups from Peshawar, and Kandahar, such
   as the Afridis, Khattaks, and Sadozais, also claim to be descended from
   Alexander the Great's Greeks. The Khakwani tribe found in an area from
   Khogyani district in Nangarhar province to as far east as Bahawalpur
   city in the south of Punjab claims to be Sayyid descendants of
   Muhammad.

Genetics

   Research into human DNA has emerged as a new and innovative tool being
   used to explore the genetic make-up of various populations in order to
   ascertain historical population movements. According to some genetic
   research (the source of which is disclosed under the references section
   below regarding a random sampling of Pashtun populations without
   specfication as to which Pashtun tribes were tested in western
   Pakistan) the anthropological evidence that the Pashto-speaking
   Pashtuns are related to other Iranian groups as well as the Burusho of
   the Northern Areas of Pakistan, who speak a language isolate. The
   genetic testing, though still in its initial phases, has not shown any
   substantial connection between the general Pashtun population sampled
   to the genetic markers found among most Greeks, Jews, or Arabs. What
   may be the case is that the gentically Pashtuns have slightly changed
   over time by due to vairous migrations in the area, while still
   maintaining an eastern Iranian base genetically overall. Ultimately, a
   much more detailed, transparent and wider sampling of Pashtun DNA will
   be required before a conclusive and generally representative answer of
   Pashto tribal origins can be answered.

Putative ancestry

   There are also various groups which claim Pashtun descent and are
   largely found among other groups in Afghanistan and South Asia and
   generally do not speak Pashto and are often considered either
   overlapping groups or are simply assigned to the ethno-linguistic group
   that corresponds to their geographic location and their mother tongue.
   Some groups who claim Pashtun descent include various non-Pashtun
   Afghans who are often conversant in Persian rather than Pashto.

   Hindkowans who are referred to as Punjabi Pathans (in publications such
   as Encyclopedia Britannica) speak the Hindko language and are regarded
   as a group of mixed Pashtun and Punjabi origin. The Hindko-speaking
   people living in major cities such as Peshawar, Kohat, Mardan, Dera
   Ismail Khan and in mixed districts like Batagram are often bilingual in
   Pashto and Hindko.

   There are also a small number of Siraiki speaking Pathans as well. As
   Multan was once a province of Afghanistan, the Nawabs of Multan were of
   Khakwani and Saddozai extraction and settled in Multan. Many Siraiki
   speaking Pathans currently reside in Mianwali and D.I. Khan.

   Many claimants of Pashtun heritage in other parts of South Asia have
   mixed with local Muslim populations and refer to themselves (and
   Pashto-speaking Pashtuns and often Afghans in general) in the
   Urdu/Hindi variant Pathan rather than Pashtun or Pukhtun. These
   populations are usually only part-Pashtun, to varying degrees, and
   often trace their Pashtun ancestry putatively through a paternal
   lineage, and are not universally viewed as ethnic Pashtuns (see section
   on Pashtuns Defined for further analysis). In addition, nearly 20% of
   Urdu-speaking people claim partial Pashtun ancestry. The Muslim sultans
   and Mughal emperors of Delhi employed thousands of Pashtun soldiers
   that settled down in northern India and intermarried with local
   Muslims. The Rohilla Pashtuns, after their defeat by the British, are
   notable for having intermarried with local Muslims, while becoming part
   of the Urdu-speaking Muslim community. The repression of Rohilla
   Pashtuns by the British in late 18th century caused thousands to flee
   to the Dutch colony of Guyana in South America. Small minorities of
   Pashto-speaking Sikhs and Hindus, estimated to be in the thousands, can
   be found in parts of Afghanistan.

Pashtuns defined

   Ahmad Shah Durrani, formed the Durrani Empire (Pashtun Empire) in 1747.
   Enlarge
   Ahmad Shah Durrani, formed the Durrani Empire (Pashtun Empire) in 1747.

   Among historians, anthropologists, and the Pashtuns themselves, there
   is some debate as to who exactly is a Pashtun. The most prominent views
   are (1) that Pashtuns are predominantly an Eastern Iranian people who
   are speakers of the Pashto language and live in a contiguous geographic
   location (this is the generally accepted academic view) in Afghanistan
   and Pakistan, (2) Pashtuns, in addition to being Pashto-speakers and
   meeting other criteria, are also Muslim and follow Pashtunwali and thus
   Jews, Christians, or atheists would be excluded, (3) to define the
   Pashtuns in terms of patrilineal descent going back to legendary times
   in accordance with the legend of Qais Abdur Rashid who is seen as the
   progenitor of the Pashtun people. We may call these the
   ethno-linguistic definition, religious-cultural definition, and the
   patrilineal definition.

Ethnic definition

   The ethno-linguistic definition is the most prominent and accepted view
   as to who is and is not a Pashtun. Generally, this most common view
   holds that Pashtuns are defined within the parameters of having mainly
   eastern Iranian ethnic origins, sharing a common language, culture and
   history, living in relatively close geographic proximity to each other,
   and acknowledging each other as kinsmen. Thus, tribes that speak even
   disparate yet mutually intelligible dialects of Pashto will acknowledge
   each other as ethnic Pashtuns and even subscribe to certain dialects as
   'proper' such as the Pukhtu spoken by the Yousafzai and the Pashto
   spoken by the Durrani. These criteria tend to be used by most Pashtuns
   in Afghanistan and Pakistan as the basis for who can be counted as a
   Pashtun.

Cultural definition

   The religious and cultural definition is more stringent and requires
   Pashtuns to be Muslim and adherents of the Pashtunwali code. This is
   the most prevalent view among the more orthodox and conservative
   tribesmen who do not view Pashtuns of the Jewish faith as actual
   Pashtuns even if they themselves might claim to be of Hebrew ancestry
   depending upon which tribe is in question. The religious definition for
   Pashtuns is partially based upon the laws of Pashtunwali, and that
   those who are Pashtun must follow and honour Pashtunwali. However,
   Pashtun society is not entirely homogenous in the religious sense, as
   Pashtuns, who are predominantly Sunni Muslims, can also be followers of
   the Shia sect among others. In addition, the Pashtun Jewish population
   (once numbering in the thousands) has largely relocated to Israel.
   Overall, more flexibility can be found among Pashtun intellectuals and
   academics who sometimes simply define who is and is not a Pashtun based
   upon other criteria that often excludes religion.

Ancestral definition

   The patrilineal definition is based on an important orthodox law of
   Pashtunwali. Its main requirement is that anyone claiming to be a
   Pashtun must have a Pashtun father. This law has maintained the
   tradition of exclusively patriarchal tribal lineage intact. Under this
   definition there is less regard as to what language you speak (Pashto,
   Persian, Urdu, English, etc.), while more emphasis is placed upon one's
   father in order to be an ethnic Pashtun. Thus, the Pathans in India,
   for example, who have lost both the language and presumably many of the
   ways of their putative ancestors, can, by being able to trace their
   fathers' ethnic heritage back to the Pashtun tribes (who some believe
   are descendants of the four grandsons of Qais Abdur Rashid, a possible
   legendary progenitor of the Pashtuns), remain 'Pashtun'. The legend
   states that Qais, after having heard of the new religion of Islam,
   traveled to meet the Muslim Prophet Muhammad in Medina and returned to
   Afghanistan a Muslim. Qais, in turn, purportedly had many children and
   one son, Afghana, produced up to four sons who set out towards the east
   including one son who went towards Swat, another towards Lahore and
   Oudh, another to Multan, and finally one to Quetta. This legend is one
   of many traditional tales among the Pashtuns regarding their disparate
   origins that remain largely unverifiable.

Culture

   Pashtun culture was formed over the course of many centuries. Pagan
   traditions survived in the form of traditional dances, while literary
   styles and music largely reflect strong influence from the Persian
   literary tradition and regional musical instruments fused with
   localized variants and interpretation. Pashtun culture is a unique
   blend of native customs and strong influences from Central, South and
   West Asia.

Language and literature

   Throughout Pashtun history poets, prophets, kings and warriors have
   been the most revered members of society. For much of Pashtun history
   literature has not played a major role as Persian was the lingua franca
   used by neighboring peoples and generally relied upon for writing
   purposes. However, by the sixteenth century early written records of
   Pashto began to appear, the earliest of which describes Sheikh Mali's
   conquest of Swat. The advent of Pashto poetry and the revered works of
   Khushal Khan Khattak and Rahman Baba in the 17th century helped
   transition Pashto towards the modern period. In the 20th century,
   Pashto literature gained significant prominence with the poetic works
   of Ameer Hamza Shinwari who was noted for his development of Pashto
   Ghazals. In recent times, Pashto literature has received increased
   patronage, but due to relatively high illiteracy rates, many Pashtuns
   continue to rely upon the oral tradition. Pashtun males continue to
   meet at chai khaanas or tea cafes to listen and relate various oral
   tales of valor and history.

   Despite the general male dominance of Pashto oral story-telling,
   Pashtun society is also marked by some matriarchal tendencies.
   Folktales involving reverence for Pashtun mothers and matriarchs are
   common and are passed down from parent to child, as is most Pashtun
   heritage, through a rich oral tradition that has survived the ravages
   of time.

Religion

   Pashtuns are Sunni Muslims, most of them follow the Hanafite branch of
   Sunni Islam. A tiny Jewish population has relocated to Israel. Dr.
   Muhammad Muhsin Khan, belonging to the Afghan (Pashtun) AlKhoashki
   Al-Jamandi tribe from Kandahar, Afghanistan, translated the Noble
   Quran, Sahih Al-Bukhari, Al-lu'lu' wal Margan and many other books into
   English. He last worked as the Director of the Islamic University
   Clinic in Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia.

Pashtunwali

   The term 'Pakhto' or 'Pashto' from which the Pashtuns derive their name
   is not merely the name of their language, but synonymous with a
   pre-Islamic honour code/religion formally known as Pashtunwali (or
   Pakhtunwali). The main tenets of Pashtunwali include:
    1. Melmastia: Hospitality and asylum to all guests seeking help.
    2. Badal: Justice and revenge, possibly derived from ancient Israelite
       Mosaic Law, "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth."
    3. Zan, Zar and Zameen: Defense of women/family, treasure, and
       property/land.
    4. Nanawati: Humble admission of guilt for a wrong committed, which
       should result in automatic forgiveness from the wronged party.

   The basic precepts of Pashtunwali continue to be followed by many
   Pashtuns, especially in rural areas and is often the centre of Pashtun
   tribal life.

Sports and entertainment

   Pashtuns engage in various sporting activities common throughout the
   world including cricket and football (soccer). Older traditional sports
   include Buzkashi, a contest between horsemen (believed to have been
   brought to the region by the Mongols) that entails dragging a goat
   carcass and keeping it away from other players. Another Pashtun
   past-time is Naiza bazi, which also involves horsemen who engage in
   throwing spears.

   Polo is also an ancient traditional sport in the region and is a
   popular amongst many tribesmen such as the Yousafzai. Like other
   neighboring peoples, many Pashtuns engage in wrestling ( Pehlwani),
   which is often part of larger sporting events. Cricket is largely a
   legacy of British rule in the North West Frontier Province and many
   Pashtuns have become prominent participants including Shahid Afridi,
   real name Shahid Hussain Shah, who is regarded as one of the best
   cricket players in the world. Cricket would not be complete without
   mentioning Imran Khan, a member of the Niazi tribe.

   Football is a more recent sport that increasing numbers of Pashtuns
   have started to play. Children engage in various games including a
   somewhat macabre form of marbles called buzul-bazi, which involves
   playing with the knuckle bones of sheep. Although traditionally less
   involved in sports than boys, young Pashtun girls often play volleyball
   and basketball, especially in urban areas. Another sport played by
   Pashtuns is Gatka in which is a form of fencing where they square up to
   each other and are armed with a leather padded, circular, round shield
   accompanied by a long think treated, leather covered cane. This sport
   was quite popular up to the 70's and frequently was a showpiece at
   special occasions such as weddings. It has declined in popularity in
   recent decades due to shortage of Ustazs'(masters' and teachers). Swat
   and Hazara regions were the mainstay of this activity.

   Pashtun performers remain avid participants in various physical forms
   of expression including dance, sword fighting, and other physical
   feats. Perhaps the most common form of artistic expression can be seen
   in the various forms of Pashtun dances.

   One of the most prominent dances is the Attan, a dance with ancient
   pagan roots, that was later modified by Islamic mysticism, in some
   regions, and has become the national dance of Afghanistan. A rigorous
   exercise, the Attan is performed as musicians play various native
   instruments including the dhol (drums), tablas (percussions), rubab (a
   bowed string instrument), and toola (wooden flute). Involving a rapid
   circular motion, dancers perform until no one is left dancing in a
   fashion similar to sufi whirling dervishes. Numerous other dances are
   affiliated with various tribes including the Khattak Wal Atanrh
   (eponymously named after the Khattak tribe), Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which,
   in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles), and Waziro
   Atanrh among others. A sub-type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the
   Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great
   skill to successfully execute. Though most dances are dominated by
   males, some dance performances such as the Spin Takray feature female
   dancers. Additionally, young women and girls often entertain at
   weddings with the Tumbal (tambourine).

   Traditional Pashtun music has ties to Klasik (traditional Afghan music
   heavily inspired by classical Indian music), Iranian musical
   traditions, and various forms found in the eastern Music of Pakistan.
   Popular forms include the ghazal (sung poetry) and Sufi qawwali music.
   General themes tend to revolve around love and religious introspection.
   Modern Pashto music is currently centered around the city of Peshawar
   due to the various wars in Afghanistan and tends to combine indigenous
   techniques and instruments with Iranian-inspired Dari music and Indian
   Filmi music prominent in Bollywood.
   Mirwais Ahmadzai is Pashtun through his Afghan father and a famous
   musician in Europe.
   Enlarge
   Mirwais Ahmadzai is Pashtun through his Afghan father and a famous
   musician in Europe.

   Other modern Pashtun media include an established Pashto language film
   and TV industry that is based in Pakistan. Both Pashtuns and Punjabi
   producers, based in Lahore, have created Pashto language films, since
   the 1970s. Pashto films were once popular, but have declined both
   commercially and critically in recent years. Past films such as Yusuf
   Khan Sherbano dealt with serious subject matter, traditional stories,
   and legends, but the Pashto film industry has, since the 1980s, been
   accused of churning out increasingly lewd exploitation-style films.
   Pashtun lifestyle and issues have been raised by Western and Pashtun
   expatriate film-makers in recent years. Notable films about the Pashtun
   experience include British film-maker Michael Winterbottom's In This
   World, which chronicles the struggles of two Afghan youths who leave
   their refugee camps in Pakistan and attempt to move to the United
   Kingdom in search of a better life, and the British mini-series Traffik
   (re-made as Traffic for US audiences) which featured a Pashtun man
   (played by Jamal Shah) struggling to survive in a world with few
   opportunities outside the drug trade.

   Numerous Pashtun actors work in India's Bollywood film industry
   including: Dilip Kumar (born Muhammad Yusuf Khan in Peshawar, British
   India), Feroz Khan (born in Bangalore, India to ethnic Afghan parents),
   Shah Rukh Khan (son of Mir Taj Muhammad and Lateef Fatima) among many
   others.

Institutions

   President of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, is an ethnic Pashtun from
   Kandahar.
   Enlarge
   President of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, is an ethnic Pashtun from
   Kandahar.

   Possibly the most prominent institution of the Pashtun people is the
   intricate system of tribes. The Pashtuns remain a predominantly tribal
   people, but the world-wide trend of urbanization has begun to alter
   Pashtun society as cities such as Peshawar and Quetta have grown
   rapidly due to the influx of rural Pashtuns and Afghan refugees. Many
   still identify themselves with various clans in-spite of this trend
   towards urbanization.

   More precisely, there are several levels of organization within the
   Pashtun tribal system: the Tabar (tribe) is subdivided into kinship
   groups each of which is a Khel. The Khel in turn is divided into
   smaller groups ( Pllarina or plarganey), each of which consists of
   several extended families or Kahols. "A large tribe often has dozens of
   sub-tribes whose members may see themselves as belonging to each, some,
   or all of the sub-tribes in different social situations (co-operative,
   competitive, confrontational) and identify with each accordingly."
   Pashtun tribes are divided into four 'greater' tribal groups: Sarbans,
   Batans, Ghurghusht and Karlans.
   Elders are important people in the Pashtun society and often make
   important decisions in the community.
   Enlarge
   Elders are important people in the Pashtun society and often make
   important decisions in the community.

   In addition to the tribal hierarchy, another prominent Pashtun
   institution is that of the Jirga or 'Senate' of elected elders and wise
   men. Most decisions in tribal life are made by members of the Jirga,
   which is the main institution of authority that the largely egalitarian
   Pashtuns willingly acknowledge as a viable governing body.

   Pashtuns often observe special occasions upon which to celebrate and/or
   commemorate events, which are also quite often national holidays in
   Afghanistan and Pakistan. A common Turko-Iranian celebration known as
   Nouruz (or New Year) is often observed by Pashtuns, especially in
   Afghanistan. Most prominent are Muslim holidays including Ramadan and
   Eid al-Fitr. Muslim holidays tend to be the most widely observed and
   commercial activity can come to a halt as large extended families
   gather together in what is often both a religious duty and a festive
   celebration.

The modern era

   Abdul Ahad Mohmand spent nine days aboard the MIR space station in
   1988, becoming the first Afghan (Pashtun) cosmonaut to reach space.
   Enlarge
   Abdul Ahad Mohmand spent nine days aboard the MIR space station in
   1988, becoming the first Afghan (Pashtun) cosmonaut to reach space.

   The Pashtuns are intimately tied to the history of modern-era
   Afghanistan stretching back to the Hotaki dynasty and later the Durrani
   Empire. The Hotakis were Pashtuns from the Ghilzai clan, who defeated
   the Persian Safavids and seized control over much of Persia (Iran) from
   1722 to 1736. This early rise of the Pashtun empire was followed by the
   efforts of Ahmad Shah Durrani, who was from the Abdali or Durrani clan
   and a former high-ranking military commander under the ruler Nadir
   Shah. He founded the Durrani Empire that covered all of what is now
   Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, and Khorasan province of Iran (see Map
   of Durrani Empire). His successors would rule this empire for the next
   70 years. The Afghans (Pashtuns) fought the British to a standstill and
   kept the Russians at bay during the so-called Great Game, which
   Afghanistan managed to remain an independent state that played the two
   large imperialist empires against each other to maintain some semblance
   of autonomy. In the 20th century, various Pashtuns living under British
   Indian rule in the North West Frontier Province agitated for Indian
   independence, including Khan Wali Khan and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
   (both members of the Khudai Khidmatgar, popularly referred to as the
   Surkh posh or "the Red shirts"), and were inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's
   non-violent method of resistance. Later, in the 1970s, Khan Wali Khan
   pressed for more autonomy for Pashtuns or even an independent
   Pashtunistan.
   Dr. Zalmay Khalizad is the first Pashtun to work for the White House.
   He is currently U.S. Ambassador to Iraq.
   Enlarge
   Dr. Zalmay Khalizad is the first Pashtun to work for the White House.
   He is currently U.S. Ambassador to Iraq.

   Pashtuns in Afghanistan attained complete independence from British
   intervention during the reign of King Amanullah Khan, following the
   Third Anglo-Afghan War. The monarchy ended with Sardar Daoud Khan
   seizing control of Afghanistan in 1973, which opened the door to Soviet
   intervention and eventually culminated in the Saur Revolution or
   Communist take-over of Afghanistan in 1978. Starting in the late 1970s,
   many Pashtuns joined the Mujahideen opposition against the Soviet
   invasion of Afghanistan. These Mujahideen fought for control of
   Afghanistan against the Communist Khalq and the Parcham factions. More
   recently, the Pashtuns became known for being the primary ethnic group
   that comprised the Taliban, which was a religious movement that emerged
   from Kandahar, Afghanistan. As of late 2001, the Taliban government had
   been removed from power as a result of the US-led invasion of
   Afghanistan.

   Pashtuns have played an important role in the region of South- Central
   Asia. The current President of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, is Pashtun
   from the Popalzai clain and also from Kandahar. In neighboring Pakistan
   ethnic Pashtun politicians, notably Ayub Khan and Ghulam Ishaq Khan,
   have also attained the Presidency in the past. The Afghan royal family
   now represented by Muhammad Zahir Shah is also of ethnic Pashtun
   origin. Other prominent Pashtuns include the 17th century warrior poet
   Khushal Khan Khattak, Afghan "Iron" Emir Abdur Rahman Khan and in
   modern times US Ambassador to Iraq Zalmay Khalilzad among many others.
   In India, the former ambassador to Algeria and advisor to Indira
   Gandhi, Mohammad Yunus is an ethnic Pashtun.

Women

   The Pashtuns today are a diverse population with widely varying
   lifestyles and perspectives. The effects of globalization have led to
   the proliferation of Western ideas as well as the infiltration of
   Saudi-style Wahhabist Islam. Though many Pashtuns remain tribal and
   illiterate, others have become urbanized and highly educated. The
   ravages of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and the Afghan wars
   leading up to the rise and fall of the Taliban have caused substantial
   hardship amongst the Pashtuns. Currently, Afghanistan is in a
   rebuilding phase, while Pashtuns in Pakistan have grown in numbers and
   influence. Stability remains elusive for Pashtuns who have had to
   balance a practical necessity to survive with a desire to work hard and
   seek out opportunity. However, changes among the Pashtuns have not come
   without difficulty, especially in the case of women.

   Pashtun women greatly vary from the traditional housewives who live in
   seclusion to urban workers some of whom seek (and have attained) parity
   with men. They share with their menfolk a free-willed, strong and
   fiercely independent character that values freedom and self rule.

   Due to numerous social hurdles, the literacy rate for Pashtun women
   remains considerably lower than that of males. Abuse against women is
   also widespread and yet is increasingly being challenged by women's
   rights organizations who find themselves struggling with conservative
   religious groups as well as government officials in both Afghanistan
   and Pakistan. According to researcher Benedicte Grima's book
   Performance of Emotion Among Paxtun Women, "a powerful ethic of
   forbearance severely limits traditional Pashtun women's ability to
   mitigate the suffering they acknowledge in their lives."

   Pashtun women often have their legal rights curtailed in favour of
   their husbands or male relatives as well. For example, though women are
   technically allowed to vote in Afghanistan and Pakistan, many have been
   kept away from ballot boxes by males. Traditionally, Pashtun women have
   few inheritance rights and are often charged with taking care of large
   extended families of their spouses. Another tradition that persists is
   Swara, a practice that involves giving a female relative to someone in
   order to rectify a dispute. The practice was declared illegal in 2000,
   but continues to be conducted in tribal regions.

   Despite obstacles, many Pashtun women have begun a process of slow
   change. Some Pashtun women in cities in Pakistan have attained more
   personal freedom and autonomy when it comes to their personal lives,
   which has not been received well by conservative Pashtun men and women.
   Others have joined men in business, finance, and other male dominated
   fields. While most Pashtun women (like many men) are illiterate, a rich
   oral tradition and resurgence of poetry has sparked some interest on
   the part of both men and women and given hope to many Pashtun women
   seeking to learn to read and write. As a sign of further female
   emancipation, a Pashtun woman recently became one of the first female
   fighter pilots in Pakistan's Airforce. In addition, numerous Pashtun
   women have attained high political office in both Pakistan and,
   following recent elections, in Afghanistan where female representatives
   compose one of the highest percentages in the world. Substantial work
   remains though for Pashtun women who hope to gain equal rights with
   Pashtun men who remain disproportionately dominant in most aspects of
   Pashtun society. Human rights organizations including the Afghan
   Women's Network continue to struggle for greater women's rights as does
   the Aurat Foundation in Pakistan which often attempts to safeguard
   women from domestic abuse. Civil rights have remained an important
   issue in Afghanistan where Meena Khishwar Kamal, born in 1957 in Kabul
   to a middle class family, has campaigned for women's rights and founded
   the Revolutionary Women of Afghanistan (RAWA), which has continued to
   advocate on behalf of women's rights in Afghanistan through the Soviet
   era and recent Taliban regime.

Literature

     * Ahmad, Aisha and Boase, Roger. 2003. "Pashtun Tales from the
       Pakistan-Afghan Frontier: From the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier." Saqi
       Books (March 1, 2003). ISBN 0-86356-438-0.
     * Ahmed, Akbar S. 1976. "Millennium and Charisma among Pathans: A
       Critical Essay in Social Anthropology." London: Routledge & Kegan
       Paul.
     * Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980. "Pukhtun economy and society." London:
       Routledge and Kegan Paul.
     * Banuazizi, Ali and Myron Weiner (eds.). 1994. "The Politics of
       Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan
       (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)." Syracuse University
       Press. ISBN 0-8156-2608-8.
     * Banuazizi, Ali and Myron Weiner (eds.). 1988. "The State, Religion,
       and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary
       Issues in the Middle East)." Syracuse University Press. ISBN
       0-8156-2448-4.
     * Caroe, Olaf. 1984. "The Pathans: 500 B.C.-A.D. 1957 (Oxford in Asia
       Historical Reprints)." Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577221-0
     * Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1985. "Peshawar: Historic city of the Frontier."
       Sang-e-Meel Publications (1995). ISBN 969-35-0554-9.
     * Dupree, Louis. 1997. "Afghanistan." Oxford University Press. ISBN
       0-19-577634-8.
     * Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. "An account of the Kingdom of
       Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India:
       comprising a view of the Afghaun nation." Akadem. Druck- u.
       Verlagsanst (1969).
     * Habibi, Abdul Hai. 2003. "Afghanistan: An Abridged History."
       Fenestra Books. ISBN 1-58736-169-8.
     * Hopkirk, Peter. 1984. "The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in
       Central Asia." Kodansha Globe; Reprint edition. ISBN 1-56836-022-3.
     * Wardak, Ali "Jirga - A Traditional Mechanism of Conflict Resolution
       in Afghanistan", 2003, online at UNPAN (the United Nations Online
       Network in Public Administration and Finance).
     * "A Study of the Greek Ancestry of Northern Pakistani Ethnic Groups
       Using 115 Microsatellite Markers." A. Mansoor, Q. Ayub, et al.Am.
       J. Human Genetics, Oct 2001 v69 i4 p399.
     * "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan."
     * "Where west meets east: the complex mtDNA landscape of the
       southwest and Central Asian corridor."

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