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Parthenon

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   Coordinates: 37°58′17.39″N, 23°43′35.69″E
   The Parthenon seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west.
   Enlarge
   The Parthenon seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west.

   The Parthenon (in Greek:(Ο Παρθενώνας) was a temple of Athena, built in
   the 5th century BC on the acropolis of Athens. It is considered the
   most famous surviving building of ancient Greece, and has been praised
   as the finest achievement of Greek architecture. Its decorative
   sculptures are considered one of the high points of Greek art. The
   Parthenon is an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian
   democracy. It is regarded as one of the world's greatest cultural
   monuments.

   The name of the Parthenon likely derives from the monumental cult
   statue of Athena Parthenos housed in the eastern room of the building.
   This statue was sculpted in ivory and gold by Phidias. Athena's epithet
   parthenos refers to the goddess's unmarried and virginal status.

   The Parthenon replaced an older temple of Athena that had been
   destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC. Like most Greek temples, the
   Parthenon was used as a treasury, and for a time served as the treasury
   of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire.

   In the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian
   church dedicated to the Virgin. After the Turkish conquest, it was
   converted into a mosque. In 1687 a Turkish ammunition dump inside the
   building was ignited by a Venetian cannonball. The resulting explosion
   severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. In the 19th century
   AD, Lord Elgin removed some of the surviving sculptures and took them
   to England. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles or
   Parthenon Marbles, are on display in the British Museum. An ongoing
   dispute concerns whether the Elgin Marbles should be returned to
   Greece.

   The Parthenon, along with the other buildings on the Acropolis, is now
   one of the most visited archaeological sites in Greece. The Greek
   Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of restoration
   and reconstruction.

Design and construction

   The Parthenon from the south. In the foreground of the image, a
   reconstruction of the marble imbrices and tegulae (roof tiles) forming
   the roof is visible, resting on wooden supports
   Enlarge
   The Parthenon from the south. In the foreground of the image, a
   reconstruction of the marble imbrices and tegulae (roof tiles) forming
   the roof is visible, resting on wooden supports

   The Parthenon was built at the initiative of Pericles, the leading
   Athenian politician of the fifth century. It was built under the
   general supervision of the sculptor Phidias, who also had charge of the
   sculptural decoration. The architects were Iktinos and Kallikrates.
   Construction began in 447 BC, and the building was substantially
   completed by 438, but work on the decorations continued until at least
   433. Some of the financial accounts for the Parthenon survive and show
   that the largest single expense was transporting the stone from Mount
   Pentelicus, about 16 kilometers from Athens, to the Acropolis. The
   funds were partly drawn from the treasury of the Delian League, which
   was moved from the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in
   454 BC.

   Although the nearby Temple of Hephaestus is the most complete surviving
   example of a Doric order temple, the Parthenon, in its day, was
   regarded as the finest. The temple, wrote John Julius Norwich, "Enjoys
   the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even
   in antiquity, its architectural refinements were legendary, especially
   the subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate, the
   taper of the naos walls and the entasis of the columns." The stylobate
   is the platform on which the columns stand. It curves upwards slightly
   for optical reasons. Entasis refers to the slight tapering of the
   columns as they rise, to counter the optical effect of looking up at
   the temple. The effect of these subtle curves is to make the temple
   appear more symmetrical than it actually is.

   Measured at the top step, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon
   are 69.5 meters by 30.9 meters (228.0 x 101.4 ft). The cella was 29.8
   meters long by 19.2 meters wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft), with internal Doric
   colonnades in two tiers, structurally necessary to support the roof. On
   the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 meters (6.2 ft) in diameter
   and are 10.4 meters (34.1 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly
   larger in diameter. The stylobate has an upward curvature towards its
   centre of 60 millimeters (2.36 in) on the east and west ends, and of
   110 millimeters (4.33 in) on the sides. Some of the dimensions form the
   golden rectangle expressing the golden ratio, praised by Pythagoras in
   the previous century.

   The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as
   imbrices and tegulae.

Sculptural decoration

   Detail of the West metopes, illustrating the current condition of the
   temple in detail after 2,500 years of wars, pollution, erratic
   conservation, pillage and vandalism.
   Enlarge
   Detail of the West metopes, illustrating the current condition of the
   temple in detail after 2,500 years of wars, pollution, erratic
   conservation, pillage and vandalism.

   The Parthenon, an octostyle, peripteral Doric temple with Ionic
   architectural features, housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena
   Parthenos sculpted by Pheidias and dedicated in 439/438 BC. The temple
   was dedicated to the Athena at that time, though construction continued
   until almost the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By the year
   438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above
   the exterior colonnade, and of the Ionic frieze around the upper
   portion of the walls of the cella, had been completed.

   The ninety-two metopes were carved in high relief, a practice employed
   until then only in treasuries (buildings used to keep votive gifts to
   the gods). According to the building records, the metope sculptures
   date to the years 446-440 BC. Their design is attributed to the
   sculptor Kalamis. The metopes of the east side of the Parthenon, above
   the main entrance, depict the Gigantomachy (mythical battles between
   the Olympian gods and the Giants). The metopes of the west end show
   Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons).
   The metopes of the south side—with the exception of the somewhat
   problematic metopes 13-20, now lost—show the Thessalian Centauromachy
   (battle of the Lapiths aided by Theseus against the half-man,
   half-horse Centaurs). On the north side of the Parthenon the metopes
   are poorly preserved, but the subject seems to be the sack of Troy.
   Detail of the West metopes. One of the high-relief sculptures removed
   by Lord Elgin's expedition and now in the British Museum
   Enlarge
   Detail of the West metopes. One of the high-relief sculptures removed
   by Lord Elgin's expedition and now in the British Museum

   Stylistically, the metopes present surviving traces of the Severe Style
   in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of the corporal
   movements to the contours and not to the muscles, and in the presence
   of pronounced veins in the figures of the Centauromachy. Several of the
   metopes still remain on the building, but with the exception of those
   on the northern side, they are severely damaged. Some of them are
   located at the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum and
   one can be seen at the Louvre Museum.

   The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of
   the temple is the Ionic frieze running around the exterior walls of the
   cella. Carved in bas-relief, it most likely depicts an idealized
   version of the Panathenaic procession from the Dipylon Gate in the
   Kerameikos to the Acropolis. In this procession held every 4 years,
   Athenians and foreigners were participating to honour the goddess
   Athena offering sacrifices and a new peplos (dress woven by selected
   noble Athenian girls called ergastines). The entire frieze was carved
   in situ and it is dated in 442-438 BC.

   Pausanias, the 2nd century traveller, when he visited the Acropolis and
   saw the Parthenon, briefly described only the pediments of the temple.
   The East pediment narrates the birth of Athena from the head of her
   father, Zeus, whereas the West pediment presents the dispute of Athena
   and Poseidon over the city of Athens. The work on the pediments lasted
   from 438 to 432 BC.

   The richness of the Parthenon's frieze and metrope decoration is in
   agreement with the function of the temple as an Atheanian Treasury. In
   the opisthodomus (the back room of the cella) were stored the monetary
   contributions of the Delian Alliance of which Athens was the leading
   member.

Treasury or temple?

   Architecturally, the Parthenon is clearly a temple, formerly containing
   the famous cult image of Athena by Phidias and the treasury of votive
   offerings. Since actual Greek sacrifices always took place at an altar
   invariably under an open sky, as was in keeping with their religious
   practices, the Parthenon does not suit some definitions of "temple," as
   no evidence of an altar has been discovered. Thus, some scholars have
   argued that the Parthenon was only ever used as a treasury. While this
   opinion was first formed late in the 19th century, it has gained
   strength in recent years. The majority of scholarly opinion still sees
   the building in the terms Walter Burkert described for the Greek
   sanctuary, consisting of temenos, altar and temple with cult image.

Later history

   The Parthenon survived as a temple to Athena for close to a thousand
   years. It was certainly still intact in the 4th century AD, by which
   time it was already as old as Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris is now, and
   far older than St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. But by that time Athens
   had been reduced to a provincial city of the Roman Empire, albeit one
   with a glorious past. Sometime in the 5th century AD, the great cult
   image of Athena was looted by one of the Emperors, and taken to
   Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the sack
   of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 AD.
   The Parthenon's position on the Acropolis allows it to dominate the
   city skyline of Athens
   Enlarge
   The Parthenon's position on the Acropolis allows it to dominate the
   city skyline of Athens

   Shortly after this, the Parthenon was converted to a Christian church.
   In Byzantine times it became the Church of the Parthena Maria (Virgin
   Mary), or the Church of the Theotokos ( Mother of God). At the time of
   the Latin Empire it became for about 250 years a Roman Catholic Church
   of Our Lady. The conversion of the temple to a church involved removing
   the internal columns and some of the walls of the cella, and the
   creation of an apse at the eastern end. This inevitably led to the
   removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures. Those depicting gods
   were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme, or
   removed and destroyed.

   In 1456, Athens fell to the Ottomans, and the Parthenon was converted
   again, into a mosque. Contrary to subsequent misconception, the
   Ottomans were generally respectful of ancient monuments in their
   territories, and did not willfully destroy the antiquities of Athens,
   though they had no actual programme to protect them. However in times
   of war they were willing to demolish them to provide materials for
   walls and fortifications. A minaret was added to the Parthenon and its
   base and stairway are still functional, leading up as high as the
   architrave and hence invisible from the outside; but otherwise the
   building was not damaged further. European visitors in the 17th
   century, as well as some representations of the Acropolis hill
   testified that the building was largely intact.
   The southern side of the Parthenon, which sustained considerable damage
   in the 1687 explosion
   Enlarge
   The southern side of the Parthenon, which sustained considerable damage
   in the 1687 explosion

   In 1687, the Parthenon suffered its greatest blow when the Venetians
   under Francesco Morosini attacked Athens, and the Ottomans fortified
   the Acropolis and used the building as a gunpowder magazine. On
   September 26, a Venetian mortar, fired from the Hill of Philopapus,
   exploded the magazine and the building was partly destroyed. The
   internal structures were demolished, whatever was left of the roof
   collapsed, and some of the pillars, particularly on the southern side,
   were decapitated. The sculptures suffered heavily. Many fell to the
   ground and souvenirs were later made from their pieces. After this,
   much of the building fell into disuse and a smaller mosque was erected.

   By the late eighteenth century, many more Europeans were visiting
   Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and
   painted, helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France for Greek
   independence. In 1801, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, the
   Earl of Elgin, obtained a firman (permit) from the Sultan to make casts
   and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis, to demolish recent
   buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities, and to remove
   sculptures from them. He took this as permission to collect all the
   sculptures he could find. He employed local people to detach them from
   the building itself, a few others he collected from the ground, and
   some smaller pieces he bought from local people. The detachment of the
   sculptures caused further irreparable damage to what was left of the
   building as some of the frieze blocks were sawn in half to lessen their
   weight for shipment to England.

   Today these sculptures are in the British Museum, where they are known
   as the Elgin Marbles or Parthenon Marbles. Other sculptures from the
   Parthenon are in the Louvre in Paris and in Copenhagen. Most of the
   remainder are in Athens, in the Acropolis Museum which stands below
   ground level, a few metres to the south-east of the Parthenon. A few
   can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has been
   campaigning for many years for the British Museum sculptures to be
   returned to Greece. The British Museum has steadfastly refused to
   consider this, and successive British governments have been unwilling
   to force the Museum to do so (which would require legislation).

   When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible
   section of the minaret was removed from the Parthenon and soon all the
   medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis removed. The area
   became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. Today
   it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at
   the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea, and
   up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low
   fence to prevent damage.

Reconstruction

   Restoration work on the Parthenon in February 2004.
   Enlarge
   Restoration work on the Parthenon in February 2004.

   In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the
   Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. The project later attracted
   funding and technical assistance from the European Union. An
   archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining
   on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine
   their original locations. In some cases, prior re-construction was
   found to be incorrect. Particularly important and fragile sculptures
   were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for
   moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the
   roofline when not in use. The incorrect reconstructions were
   dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began. The Parthenon
   will not be restored to a pre-1687 state, but the explosion damage will
   be mitigated as much as possible, and new marble is being used from the
   original quarry to fill gaps and effect structurally necessary repairs.
   Ultimately, almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the
   structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by
   modern materials.

   Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins
   that were completly coated in lead, which protected the iron from
   corrosion. Stablizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated
   and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the
   expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble. All new
   metalwork uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant
   material.

Pollution hazards

   Since the 1960s, the greatest threats to the Parthenon have been
   environmental. Athens has grown enormously since World War II and has
   major problems with traffic congestion and air pollution. Corrosion of
   its marble by acid rain polluted by car exhausts has already caused
   irreparable damage to some sculptures and threatens the remaining
   sculptures and the temple itself. Over the past 20 years, the Greek
   government and the city of Athens have made some progress on these
   issues, but the future of the Parthenon is still a matter of some
   concern.

   The sculptures that reside in the British Museum are in a noticably
   better condition to the ones that were left attached (The pediment
   sculpture of Cecrops that Elgin left and the remaining Caryiatids
   resemble melted wax after 50 years of modern pollution). This fuels the
   debate over the Elgin marbles issue.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon"
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