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Olympic Games

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Sports events

   The five Olympic rings were designed in 1913, adopted in 1914 and
   debuted at the Games at Antwerp, 1920.
   The five Olympic rings were designed in 1913, adopted in 1914 and
   debuted at the Games at Antwerp, 1920.

   The Olympic Games (often referred to simply as The Olympics or The
   Games) is an international multi-sport event subdivided into summer and
   winter sporting events. The summer and winter games are each held every
   four years (an Olympiad). Until 1992, they were held in the same year.
   Since then, they have been celebrated two years apart.

   The original Olympic Games ( Greek: Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες; Olympiakoi
   Agones) began in 776 BC, in Olympia, Greece, and were celebrated until
   393 AD. In 1896, the ancient Olympic Games were revived at the
   initiative of a French nobleman, Pierre Frédy, Baron de Coubertin, thus
   beginning the era of the Modern Olympic Games.

   Since the first modern games, in Athens, Greece, participation in the
   Olympic Games has increased to include athletes from nearly all nations
   worldwide. With the improvement of satellite communications and global
   telecasts of the events, the Olympics are consistently gaining
   supporters. The most recent Summer Olympics were the 2004 Games in
   Athens and the most recent Winter Olympics were the 2006 Games in
   Turin. The upcoming games in Beijing are planned to comprise 302 events
   in 28 sports. As of 2006, the Winter Olympics were competed in 84
   events in 7 sports.

Ancient Olympics

   Athletes trained in this Olympia facility in its ancient heyday.
   Athletes trained in this Olympia facility in its ancient heyday.

   There are many myths and legends surrounding the origin of the ancient
   Olympic Games. The most popular legend describes that Heracles was the
   creator of the Olympic Games, and built the Olympic stadium and
   surrounding buildings as an honour to his father Zeus, after completing
   his 12 labors. According to that legend he walked in a straight line
   for 400 strides and called this distance a "stadion" (Greek:
   "Στάδιον")- (Roman: "stadium") (Modern English: "Stage") that later
   also became a distance calculation unit. This is also why a modern
   stadium is 400 meters in circumference length (1 stadium = 400 m).
   Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept
   of ἐκεχειρία (ekecheiria) or Olympic Truce. The date of the Games'
   inception based on the count of years in Olympiads is reconstructed as
   776 BC, although scholars' opinions diverge between dates as early as
   884 BC and as late as 704 BC.

   From then on, the Games quickly became much more important throughout
   ancient Greece, reaching their zenith in the sixth and fifth centuries
   BC. The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, contests
   alternating with sacrifices and ceremonies honouring both Zeus (whose
   colossal statue stood at Olympia), and Pelops, divine hero and mythical
   king of Olympia famous for his legendary chariot race, in whose honour
   the games were held. The number of events increased to twenty, and the
   celebration was spread over several days. Winners of the events were
   greatly admired and were immortalised in poems and statues. The Games
   were held every four years, and the period between two celebrations
   became known as an ' Olympiad'. The Greeks used Olympiads as one of
   their methods to count years. The most famous Olympic athlete lived in
   these times: the sixth century BC wrestler Milo of Croton is the only
   athlete in history to win a victory in six Olympics.

   The Games gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power
   in Greece. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman
   Empire, the Olympic Games were seen as a pagan festival and in discord
   with Christian ethics, and in 393 AD the emperor Theodosius I outlawed
   the Olympics, ending a thousand-year tradition.

   During the ancient times normally only young men could participate.
   Competitors were usually naked, not only as the weather was appropriate
   but also as the festival was meant to be, in part, a celebration of the
   achievements of the human body. Upon winning the games, the victor
   would have not only the prestige of being in first place but would also
   be presented with a crown of olive leaves. The olive branch is a sign
   of hope and peace.

   Even though the bearing of a torch formed an integral aspect of Greek
   ceremonies, the ancient Olympic Games did not include it, nor was there
   a symbol formed by interconnecting rings. These Olympic symbols were
   introduced as part of the modern Olympic Games.

Revival

   In the early seventeenth century, an "Olympick Games" sports festival
   was run for several years at Chipping Campden in the English Cotswolds,
   and the present day local Cotswold Games trace their origin to this
   festival. In 1850, an "Olympian" sports festival was begun at Much
   Wenlock in Shropshire, England, which also continues to this day as the
   Wenlock Olympian Society Annual Games. Later, similar events were
   organised in France and Greece, but these were all small-scale and
   certainly not international.

   The interest in reviving the Olympics as an international event grew
   when the ruins of ancient Olympia were uncovered by German
   archaeologists in the mid-nineteenth century. At the same time, Pierre
   de Coubertin was searching for a reason for the French defeat in the
   Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). He thought the reason was that the
   French had not received proper physical education, and sought to
   improve this. Coubertin also sought a way to bring nations closer
   together, to have the youth of the world compete in sports, rather than
   fight in war. In 1890 he attended a festival of the Wenlock Olympian
   Society, and decided that the recovery of the Olympic Games would
   achieve both of his goals.

   In a congress at the Sorbonne University, in Paris, France, held from
   June 16 to June 23, 1894 he presented his ideas to an international
   audience. On the last day of the congress, it was decided that the
   first modern Olympic Games would take place in 1896 in Athens, in the
   country of their birth. To organise the Games, the International
   Olympic Committee (IOC) was established, with the Greek Demetrius
   Vikelas as its first president.

   The total number of athletes at the the first modern Olympic Games,
   less than 250, seems small by modern standards, but the games were the
   largest international sports event ever held until that time. The Greek
   officials and public were also very enthusiastic, and they even
   proposed to have the monopoly of organizing the Olympics. The IOC
   decided differently, however, and the second Olympic Games took place
   in Paris, France. Paris was also the first Olympic Games where women
   were allowed to compete.

Modern Olympics

   After the initial success, the Olympics struggled. The celebrations in
   Paris (1900) and St. Louis (1904) were overshadowed by the world's fair
   exhibitions in which they were included. The so-called Intercalated
   Games (because of their off-year status, as 1906 is not divisible by
   four) were held in 1906 in Athens, as the first of an alternating
   series of Athens-held Olympics. Although originally the IOC recognised
   and supported these games, they are currently not recognised by the IOC
   as Olympic Games, which has given rise to the explanation that they
   were intended to mark the 10th anniversary of the modern Olympics. The
   1906 Games again attracted a broad international field of
   participants—in 1904, 80% had been American—--and great public
   interest, thereby marking the beginning of a rise in popularity and
   size of the Games.

   From the 241 participants from 14 nations in 1896, the Games grew to
   nearly 11,100 competitors from 202 countries at the 2004 Summer
   Olympics in Athens. The number of competitors at the Winter Olympics is
   much smaller than at the Summer Games; at the 2006 Winter Olympics in
   Turin Italy, 2,633 athletes from 80 countries competed in 84 events.

   The Olympics are one of the largest media events. In Sydney in 2000
   there were over 16,000 broadcasters and journalists, and an estimated
   3.8 billion viewers watched the games on television. The growth of the
   Olympics is one of the largest problems the Olympics face today.
   Although allowing professional athletes and attracting sponsorships
   from major international companies solved financial problems in the
   1980s, the large number of athletes, media and spectators makes it
   difficult and expensive for host cities to organize the Olympics.

   203 countries currently participate in the Olympics. This is a
   noticeably higher number than the number of countries recognised by the
   United Nations, which is only 193. The International Olympic Committee
   allows nations to compete which do not meet the strict requirements for
   political sovereignty that many other international organizations
   demand. As a result, many colonies and dependencies are permitted to
   host their own Olympic teams and athletes even if such competitors hold
   the same citizenship as another member nation. Examples of this include
   territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which
   compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another
   country. Also, since 1980, Taiwan has competed under the name " Chinese
   Taipei", and under a flag specially prepared by the IOC. Prior to that
   year the People's Republic of China refused to participate in the Games
   because Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China".
   The Republic of the Marshall Islands was recognised as a nation by the
   IOC on February 9, 2006, and should compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics
   in Beijing.

Olympic problems

Boycotts

   The 1956 Melbourne Olympics were boycotted by the Netherlands, Spain,
   and Switzerland, because of the repression of the Hungarian Uprising by
   the Soviet Union; additionally, Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon,
   boycotted the games due to the Suez Crisis.

   In 1972 and 1976, a large number of African countries threatened the
   IOC with a boycott, to force them to ban South Africa, Rhodesia, and
   New Zealand. The IOC conceded in the first 2 cases, but refused in 1976
   because the boycott was prompted by a New Zealand rugby union tour to
   South Africa, and rugby was not an Olympic sport. The countries
   withdrew their teams after the games had started; some African athletes
   had already competed. A lot of sympathy was felt for the athletes
   forced by their governments to leave the Olympic Village; there was
   little sympathy outside Africa for the governments' attitude.
   Twenty-two countries (Guyana was the only non-African nation) boycotted
   the Montreal Olympics because New Zealand was not banned.

   Also in 1976, due to pressure from the People's Republic of China
   (PRC), Canada told the team from the Republic of China (Taiwan) that it
   could not compete at the Montreal Summer Olympics under the name
   "Republic of China" despite a compromise that would have allowed Taiwan
   to use the ROC flag and anthem. Taiwan refused and as a result did not
   participate until 1984, when it returned under the name " Chinese
   Taipei" and used a special flag.
   Countries that boycotted the 1976 (yellow), 1980 (blue) and 1984 (red)
   games
   Countries that boycotted the 1976 (yellow), 1980 (blue) and 1984 (red)
   games

   In 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's games.
   The United States led and 64 other Western nations followed in refusing
   to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet
   invasion of Afghanistan, but 16 other Western nations did compete at
   the Moscow Olympics. The boycott reduced the number of nations
   participating to only 80. This is the lowest number of nations to
   compete since 1956. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc
   partners (except Romania) countered by skipping the Los Angeles
   Olympics in 1984, arguing the safety of their athletes could not be
   guaranteed there and "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet
   hysteria are being whipped up in the United States".

   The 1984 boycotters staged their own Friendship Games in July-August.

Doping

   One of the main problems facing the Olympics (and international sports
   in general) is doping, or performance enhancing drugs. In the early
   20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to enhance their
   performance. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games,
   Thomas J. Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach, even
   during the race. As these methods became more extreme, gradually the
   awareness grew that this was no longer a matter of health through
   sports. In the mid-1960s, sports federations put a ban on doping, and
   the IOC followed suit in 1967.

   The first and so far only Olympic death caused by doping occurred in
   1960. At the cycling road race in Rome the Danish Knut Enemark Jensen
   fell from his bicycle and later died. A coronor's inquiry found that he
   was under the influence of amphetamines.

   The first Olympic athlete to test positive for doping use was
   Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer
   Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. Seventy-three
   athletes followed him over the next 38 years, several medal winners
   among them. The most publicised doping-related disqualification was
   that of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, who won the 100m at the 1988
   Seoul Olympics, but tested positive for stanozolol.

   Despite the testing, many athletes continued to use doping without
   getting caught. In 1990, documents were revealed that showed many East
   German female athletes had been unknowingly administered anabolic
   steroids and other drugs by their coaches and trainers as a government
   policy.

   In the late 1990s, the IOC took initiative in a more organised battle
   against doping, leading to the formation of the World Anti-Doping
   Agency (WADA) in 1999. The recent 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter
   Olympics have shown that this battle is not nearly over, as several
   medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified
   due to doping offences.

   Most recently, during the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed
   a drug test and had a medal revoked. The only other case involved 12
   members with high levels of haemoglobin and their punishment was a five
   day suspension for health reasons.

   The International Olympic Committee introduced blood testing for the
   first time during these games.

Politics

   Politics interfered with the Olympics on several occasions, the most
   well-known of which was the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, where the
   games were used as propaganda by the German Nazis. At this Olympics, a
   true Olympic spirit was shown by Luz Long, who helped Jesse Owens (a
   black athlete) to win the long jump, at the expense of his own silver
   medal.

   The Soviet Union did not participate in the Olympic Games until the
   1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, the Soviets organized an
   international sports event called Spartakiads, from 1928 onward. Many
   athletes from associations organized by Communists or close to them
   chose not to participate or were even barred from participating in
   Olympic Games, and instead participated in Spartakiads.

   A political incident on a smaller scale occurred at the 1968 Summer
   Olympics in Mexico City. Two American track-and-field athletes, Tommie
   Smith and John Carlos, performed the Black Power salute on the victory
   stand of the 200-meter track and field race. In response, the IOC's
   autocratic president Avery Brundage told the USOC to either send the
   two athletes home, or withdraw the complete track and field team. The
   USOC opted for the former.

   In a political policy move that flouts the spirit of the Olympic
   movement, the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran specifically
   orders its athletes not to compete in any olympic heat, semi-final, or
   final that includes athletes from Israel. At the 2004 Olympics, an
   Iranian judo wrestler refused to compete in a heat against an Israeli
   judo wrestler, but did so in a way that 'covered' the possibility of
   Iran being removed from the games for political intrigue (the athlete
   deliberately overweighted himself out of his class). This athlete
   returned home to a heroes welcome.

Violence

   Despite what Coubertin had hoped for, the Olympics did not bring total
   peace to the world. In fact, three Olympiads had to pass without
   Olympics because of war: due to World War I the 1916 Games were
   canceled, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were
   canceled because of World War II.

   Terrorism has also become a recent threat to the Olympic Games. In
   1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven
   members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by Palestinian
   terrorist group Black September in what is known as the Munich
   massacre. A bungled liberation attempt led to the deaths of the nine
   abducted athletes who had not been killed prior to the rescue as well
   as that of a policeman, with five of the terrorists also being killed.

   During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, a bombing at the
   Centennial Olympic Park killed two and injured 111 others. The bomb was
   set by Eric Robert Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is
   currently serving a life sentence at Supermax in Florence, Colorado.

   The 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City were the first Olympic Games
   since the September 11, 2001 attacks. Olympic Games since then have
   required an extremely high degree of security due to the fear of
   possible terrorist activities.

Olympic Movement

   A number of organizations are involved in organizing the Olympic Games.
   Together they form the Olympic Movement. The rules and guidelines by
   which these organizations operate are outlined in the Olympic Charter.

   At the heart of the Olympic Movement is the International Olympic
   Committee (IOC), currently headed by Jacques Rogge. It can be seen as
   the government of the Olympics, as it takes care of the daily problems
   and makes all important decisions, such as choosing the host city of
   the Games, and the programme of the Olympics.

   Three groups of organisations operate on a more specialised level:
     * International Federations (IFs), the governing bodies of a sport
       (e.g. FIFA, the IF for football (soccer), and the FIVB, the
       international governing body for volleyball.)
     * National Olympic Committees (NOCs), which regulate the Olympic
       Movement within each country (eg. USOC, the NOC of the United
       States)
     * Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs), which take
       care of the organisation of a specific celebration of the Olympics.

   At present, 202 NOCs and 35 IFs are part of the Olympic Movement. OCOGs
   are dissolved after the celebration of each Games, once all subsequent
   paperwork has been completed.

   More broadly speaking, the term Olympic Movement is sometimes also
   meant to include everybody and everything involved in the Olympics,
   such as national sport governing bodies, athletes, media, and sponsors
   of the Olympic Games.

Criticism

   Most Olympic Games have been held in European and North American
   cities; only a few games have been held in other places, which were
   still limited to eastern Asian cities. All bids by countries in South
   America and Africa have failed. Many non-westerners believe the games
   should expand to include locations in poorer regions. Economists point
   out that the massive infrastructure investments could springboard
   cities into earning higher GDP after the games.

   In the past, the IOC has often been criticised for being a monolithic
   organisation, with several members remaining a member at old age, or
   even until their deaths. The leadership of IOC president Juan Antonio
   Samaranch especially has been strongly criticised. Under his
   presidency, the Olympic Movement made great progress, but has been seen
   as autocratic and corrupt. Samaranch's ties with the former fascist
   government in Spain, and his long term as a president (21 years)—until
   he was 81 years old—have also been points of critique.

   In 1998, it became known that several IOC members had taken bribes from
   the organising committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake
   City, Utah, in exchange for a vote on the city at the election of the
   host city. The IOC started an investigation, which led to four members
   resigning and six being expelled. The scandal set off further reforms,
   changing the way in which host cities are elected to avoid further
   bribes. Also, more active and former athletes were allowed in the IOC,
   and the membership terms have been limited.

   The same year (1998), four European groups organized the International
   Network Against Olympic Games and Commercial Sports to oppose their
   cities' bids for future Olympic Games. Also, an Anti-Olympic Alliance
   had formed in Sydney to protest the hosting of the 2000 Games. Later, a
   similar movement in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia organized
   to protest the hosting of the 2010 Winter Games. These movements were
   particularly concerned about adverse local economic impact and
   dislocation of people to accommodate the hosting of the Olympics.

   A BBC documentary aired in August 2004, entitled Panorama: "Buying the
   Games", investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for
   the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it is possible to
   bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. In
   particular, Bulgaria's member Ivan Slavkov, and Muttaleb Ahmad from the
   Olympic Council of Asia, were implicated. They have denied the
   allegations. Others have alleged that the 2006 Winter Olympics were
   held in Turin because officials bribed the IOC and so Turin got the
   games and Sion, Switzerland (which was the favorite) did not.

   The Olympic Movement has been accused of being overprotective of its
   symbolism (in particular, it claims an exclusive and monopolistic
   copyright over any arrangement of five rings and the term "olympics"),
   and have taken action against things unrelated to sport, such as the
   role-playing game Legend of the Five Rings. It was accused of
   homophobia in 1982 when it successfully sued the Gay Olympics, an event
   now know as the Gay Games, to bar it from using the term "olympics" in
   its name.

Olympic symbols

   The five Olympic rings were designed in 1913, adopted in 1914 and
   debuted at the Games at Antwerp, 1920.
   The five Olympic rings were designed in 1913, adopted in 1914 and
   debuted at the Games at Antwerp, 1920.

   The Olympic movement uses many symbols, most of them representing
   Coubertin's ideas and ideals. The best known symbol is probably that of
   the Olympic Rings. These five intertwined rings represent the unity of
   five continents (the Americas are considered one continent). They
   appear in five colors on a white field on the Olympic Flag. These
   colors, white (for the field), red, blue, green, yellow, and black were
   chosen such that each nation had at least one of these colors in its
   national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914, but the first Games at
   which it was flown were Antwerp, 1920. It is hoisted at each
   celebration of the Games.

   The official Olympic Motto is "Citius, Altius, Fortius", a Latin phrase
   meaning "Swifter, Higher, Stronger". Coubertin's ideals are probably
   best illustrated by the Olympic Creed:

          "The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but
          to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not
          the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have
          conquered but to have fought well."

   The Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia and brought to the host city by
   runners carrying the torch in relay. There it plays an important role
   in the opening ceremonies. Though the torch fire has been around since
   1928, the relay was introduced in 1936.

   The Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural
   heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an
   important part of the games since 1980 with the debut of misha, a
   Russian bear.

   French and English are the two official languages of the Olympic
   movement.

Olympic ceremonies

Opening

   Opening ceremonies climax with the lighting of the Olympic Flame. For
   lighting the torch, modern games feature elaborate mechanisms such as
   this cauldron-spiral-cauldron arrangement lit by the 1980 U.S. Olympic
   ice hockey team at the 2002 Winter Olympics.
   Opening ceremonies climax with the lighting of the Olympic Flame. For
   lighting the torch, modern games feature elaborate mechanisms such as
   this cauldron-spiral-cauldron arrangement lit by the 1980 U.S. Olympic
   ice hockey team at the 2002 Winter Olympics.

   Apart from the traditional elements, the host nation ordinarily
   presents artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of that
   country.

   Various traditional elements frame the opening ceremonies of a
   celebration of the Olympic Games. The ceremonies typically start with
   the hoisting of the host country's flag and the performing of its
   national anthem. The traditional part of the ceremonies starts with a
   "parade of nations" (or of athletes), during which most participating
   athletes march into the stadium, country by country. One honored
   athlete, typically a top competitor, from each country carries the flag
   of his or her nation, leading the entourage of other athletes from that
   country.

   Traditionally (starting at the 1928 Summer Olympics) Greece marches
   first, because of its historical status as the origin of the Olympics,
   while the host nation marches last. (Exceptionally, in 2004, when the
   Games were held in Athens, Greece marched last as host nation rather
   than first, although the flag of Greece was carried in first.) Between
   these two nations, all other participating nations march in
   alphabetical order of the dominant language of the host country, or in
   French or English alphabetical order if the host country does not write
   its dominant language in an alphabet which has a set order. In the 1992
   Summer Olympics in Barcelona, both Spanish and Catalan were official
   languages of the games, but due to politics surrounding the use of
   Catalan, the nations entered in French alphabetical order. The XVIII
   Olympic Winter Games in Nagano, Japan saw nations entering in English
   alphabetical order since the Japanese language grouped both China and
   Chinese Taipei together in the Parade of Nations.

   After all nations have entered, the president of the host country's
   Olympic Organising Committee makes a speech, followed by the IOC
   president who, at the end of his speech, introduces the organising
   country's head of state, who in turn formally opens the Olympics, by
   saying:

     «I declare open the Games of ... celebrating the ... Olympiad of the
     modern era/Olympic Winter Games.»

   In some cases, the country's head of state did not open the Olympics.
   Three examples of this are from the United States. First, in 1932, when
   Vice-President Charles Curtis opened the Games of the Xth Olympiad in
   Los Angeles, California, then New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt
   opened the III Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid, New York instead of
   President Herbert Hoover, then, in 1960, when Vice-President Richard
   Nixon opened the VIII Olympic Winter Games in Squaw Valley, California
   instead of President Dwight Eisenhower, and finally, in 1980, when Vice
   President Walter Mondale, not President Jimmy Carter, opened the XIII
   Olympic Winter Games, also in Lake Placid. Despite this, the Games are
   awarded to a city, not to the country. At the 2000 Sydney Games,
   Australian Governor-General Sir William Deane opened the Games, as
   Queen Elizabeth (who as Queen of Australia is the Australian head of
   state) did not attend.

   Next, the Olympic Flag is carried horizontally (since the 1960 Summer
   Olympics) into the stadium and hoisted as the Olympic Anthem is played.
   The flag bearers of all countries circle a rostrum, where one athlete
   (since the 1920 Summer Olympics) and one judge (since the 1972 Summer
   Olympics) speak the Olympic Oath, declaring they will compete and judge
   according to the rules. Finally, the Torch is brought into the stadium,
   passed from athlete to athlete, until it reaches the last carrier of
   the Torch, often a well-known athlete from the host nation, who lights
   the fire in the stadium's cauldron. The Olympic Flame has been lit
   since the 1928 Summer Olympics, but the torch relay did not start until
   the 1936 Summer Olympics. Beginning at the post-World War I 1920 Summer
   Olympics, the lighting of the Olympic Flame was for 68 years followed
   by the release of doves, symbolizing peace. This gesture was
   discontinued after several doves were burned alive in the Olympic Flame
   during the opening ceremony of the 1988 Summer Olympics. However, some
   Opening Ceremonies have continued to include doves in other forms; for
   example, the 2002 Winter Olympics featured skaters holding kite-like
   cloth dove puppets.

   Opening ceremonies have been held outdoors, usually on the main
   athletics stadium, but those for the 2010 Winter Olympics will be the
   first to be held indoors, at the BC Place Stadium.

Closing

   Various traditional elements also frame the closing ceremonies of an
   Olympic Games, which take place after all of the events have concluded.
   Flag bearers from each participating delegation enter the stadium in
   single file, but behind them march all of the athletes without any
   distinction or grouping of nationality. This tradition began at the
   1956 Summer Olympics at the suggestion of Melbourne schoolboy John Ian
   Wing, who thought it would be a way of bringing the athletes of the
   world together as "one nation". (In 2006, the athletes marched in with
   their countrymen, then dispersed and mingled as the ceremonies went
   on).

   Three national flags are each hoisted onto flagpoles one at a time
   while their respective national anthems are played: The flag of Greece
   on the righthand pole (again honouring the birthplace of the Olympic
   Games), the flag of the host country on the middle pole, and finally
   the flag of the host country of the next Summer or Winter Olympic
   Games, on the lefthand pole. (Exceptionally, in 2004, when the Games
   were held in Athens, only one flag of Greece was raised.)

   In what is known as the "Antwerp Ceremony" (because the tradition
   started during the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp), the mayor of the
   city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic Flag to the
   president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the mayor of the next
   city to host the Olympic Games. The receiving mayor then waves the flag
   eight times. There are three such flags, differing from all other
   copies in that they have a six-coloured fringe around the flag, and are
   tied with six coloured ribbons to a flagstaff:
     * The Antwerp flag: Was presented to the IOC at the 1920 Summer
       Olympics by the city of Antwerp, Belgium, and was passed on to the
       next organising city of the Summer Olympics until the Games of
       Seoul 1988.
     * The Oslo flag: Was presented to the IOC at the 1952 Winter Olympics
       by the city of Oslo, Norway, and is passed on to the next
       organising city of the Winter Olympics.
     * The Seoul flag: Was presented to the IOC at the 1988 Summer
       Olympics by the city of Seoul, South Korea, and is passed on to the
       next organising city of the Summer Olympics, which was Barcelona,
       Spain, at that time.

   After these traditional elements, the next host nation introduces
   itself with artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of
   that country. This tradition began with the 1976 Games.

   The president of the host country's Olympic Organising Committee makes
   a speech, followed by the IOC president, who at the end of his speech
   formally closes the Olympics, by saying:

     «I declare the Games of the ... Olympiad/... Olympic Winter Games
     closed and, in accordance with tradition, I call upon the youth of
     the world to assemble four years from now in ... to celebrate the
     Games of the ... Olympiad/... Olympic Winter Games.»

   The Olympic Flame is extinguished, and while the Olympic anthem is
   being played, the Olympic Flag that was hoisted during the opening
   ceremonies is lowered from the flagpole and horizontally carried out of
   the stadium.

Olympic sports

   Currently, the Olympic program consists of 35 different sports, 53
   disciplines and more than 400 events. The Summer Olympics includes 28
   sports with 38 disciplines and the Winter Olympics includes 7 sports
   with 15 disciplines. Nine sports were on the original Olympic programme
   in 1896: athletics, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, weightlifting,
   shooting, swimming, tennis, and wrestling. If the 1896 rowing events
   had not been cancelled due to bad weather, they would have been
   included in this list as well.

   At the most recent Winter Olympics, seven sports were conducted, or 15
   if each sport such as skiing and skating is counted. Of these, cross
   country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski
   jumping, and speed skating have been featured on the programme at all
   Winter Olympics. In addition, figure skating and ice hockey also have
   been contested as part of the Summer Games before the introduction of
   separate Winter Olympics.

   In recent years, the IOC has added several new sports to the programme
   to attract attention from young spectators. Examples of such sports
   include snowboarding and beach volleyball. The growth of the Olympics
   also means that some less popular ( modern pentathlon) or expensive
   (white water canoeing) sports may lose their place on the Olympic
   programme. The IOC decided to discontinue baseball and softball
   beginning in 2012.

   Rule 48.1 of the Olympic Charter requires that there be a minimum of 15
   Olympic sports at each Summer Games. Following its 114th Session
   (Mexico 2002), the IOC also decided to limit the programme of the
   Summer Games to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500
   athletes. The Olympic sports are defined as those governed by the
   International Federations listed in Rule 46 of the Olympic Charter. A
   two-thirds vote of the IOC is required to amend the Charter to promote
   a Recognised Federation to Olympic status and therefore make the sports
   it governs eligible for inclusion on the Olympic programme. Rule 47 of
   the Charter requires that only Olympic sports may be included in the
   programme.

   The IOC reviews the Olympic programme at the first Session following
   each Olympiad. A simple majority is required for an Olympic sport to be
   included in the Olympic programme. Under the current rules, an Olympic
   sport not selected for inclusion in a particular Games remains an
   Olympic sport and may be included again later with a simple majority.
   At the 117th IOC Session, 26 sports were included in the programme for
   London 2012.

   Until 1992, the Olympics also often featured demonstration sports. The
   objective was for these sports to reach a larger audience; the winners
   of these events are not official Olympic champions. These sports were
   sometimes sports popular only in the host nation, but internationally
   known sports have also been demonstrated. Some demonstration sports
   eventually were included as full-medal events.

Amateurism and professionalism

   The English public schools of the second half of the 19th century had a
   major influence on many sports. The schools contributed to the rules
   and influenced the governing bodies of those sports out of all
   proportion to their size. They subscribed to the Ancient Greek and
   Roman belief that sport formed an important part of education, an
   attitude summed up in the saying: mens sana in corpore sano – a sound
   mind in a healthy body. In this ethos, taking part has more importance
   than winning, because society expected gentlemen to become all-rounders
   and not the best at everything. Class prejudice against "trade"
   reinforced this attitude. The house of the parents of a typical public
   schoolboy would have a tradesman's entrance, because tradesmen did not
   rank as the social equals of gentlemen. Apart from class considerations
   there was the typically English concept of "fairness," in which
   practicing or training was considered as tantamount to cheating; it
   meant that you considered it more important to win than to take part.
   Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an
   unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a "hobby."

   The public schools had a deep involvement in the development of many
   team sports including all British codes of football as well as cricket
   and hockey. The ethos of English public schools greatly influenced
   Pierre de Coubertin. The International Olympic Committee invited a
   representative of the Headmasters' Conference (the association of
   headmasters of the English public schools) to attend their early
   meetings. The Headmasters' Conference chose the Reverend Robert Laffan,
   the headmaster of Cheltenham College, as their representative to the
   IOC meetings. He was made a member of the IOC in 1897 and, following
   the first visit of the IOC to London in 1904, he was central to the
   founding of the British Olympic Association a year later.

   In Coubertin's vision, athletes should be gentlemen. Initially, only
   amateurs were considered such; professional athletes were not allowed
   to compete in the Olympic Games. A short-lived exception was made for
   professional fencing instructors. This exclusion of professionals has
   caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern
   Olympics.

   1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion, Jim Thorpe, was
   disqualified when it was discovered that he played semi-professional
   baseball prior to winning his medals. He was restored as champion on
   compassionate grounds by the IOC in 1983. Swiss and Austrian skiers
   boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers,
   who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their
   sport and were considered professionals.

   It gradually became clear to many that the amateurism rules had become
   outdated, not least because the self-financed amateurs of Western
   countries often were no match for the state-sponsored "full-time
   amateurs" of Eastern bloc countries. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the
   traditional rules regarding amateurism. In the 1970s, amateurism
   requirements were dropped from the Olympic Charter, leaving decisions
   on professional participation to the international federation for each
   sport. This switch was perhaps best exemplified by the American Dream
   Team, composed of well-paid NBA stars, which won the Olympic gold medal
   in basketball in 1992. As of 2004, the only sport in which no
   professionals compete is boxing (though even this requires a loose
   definition of amateurism, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their
   NOCs); in men's football (soccer), the number of players over 23 years
   of age is limited to three per team.

   Advertisement regulations are still very strict, at least on the actual
   playing field, although "Official Olympic Sponsors" are common.
   Athletes are only allowed to have the names of clothing and equipment
   manufacturers on their outfits. The sizes of these markings are
   limited.

Olympic champions and medalists

   With 10 Olympic titles including those from Intercalated games, Ray
   Ewry may be considered one of the most successful Olympic athletes in
   the history of the modern Olympics.
   With 10 Olympic titles including those from Intercalated games, Ray
   Ewry may be considered one of the most successful Olympic athletes in
   the history of the modern Olympics.

   The athletes (or teams) who place first, second, or third in each event
   receive medals. The winners receive "gold medals". (Though they were
   solid gold until 1912, they are now made of gilded silver.) The
   runners-up receive silver medals, and the third-place athletes bronze
   medals. In some events contested by a single-elimination tournament
   (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined, in which
   case both semi-final losers receive bronze medals. The practice of
   awarding medals to the top three competitors was introduced in 1904; at
   the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal, silver and
   bronze, while various prizes were awarded in 1900. However, the 1904
   Olympics also awarded silver trophies for first place, which makes
   Athens 1906 the first games that awarded the three medals only. In
   addition, from 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth and sixth
   have received certificates which became officially known as "victory
   diplomas;" since 1976 the medal winners have received these also, and
   in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth-place finishers were
   added, presumably to ensure that all losing quarter-finalists in events
   using single-elimination formats would receive diplomas, thus obviating
   the need for consolation (or officially, "classification") matches to
   determine fifth through eighth places (though interestingly these
   latter are still contested in many elimination events anyway).
   Certificates were awarded also at the 1896 Olympics, but there they
   were awarded in addition to the medals to first and second place.
   Commemorative medals and diplomas — which differ in design from those
   referred to above — are also made available to participants finishing
   lower than third and eighth respectively. At the 2004 Summer Olympics
   in Athens, the first three were given wreaths as well as their medals.

   Because the Olympics are held only once every four years, the public
   and athletes often consider them as more important and valuable than
   world championships and other international tournaments, which are
   often held annually. Many athletes have become celebrities or heroes in
   their own country, or even world-wide, after becoming Olympic
   champions.

   The diversity of the sports, and the great differences between the
   Olympic Games in 1896 and today make it difficult to decide which
   athlete is the most successful Olympic athlete of all time. This is
   further complicated since the IOC no longer recognises the Intercalated
   Games which it originally organised. When measuring by the number of
   titles won at the Modern Olympic Games, the following athletes may be
   considered the most successful (2 golds from the Intercalated Games are
   included in Ray Ewry's scores).
   Athlete Nation Sport Olympics 1st 2nd 3rd Total
   Latynina, Larissa Larissa Latynina Flag of Soviet Union  URS Gymnastics
   1956–1964 9 5 4 18
   Andrianov, Nikolai Nikolai Andrianov Flag of Soviet Union  URS
   Gymnastics 1972–1980 7 5 3 15
   Nurmi, Paavo Paavo Nurmi Flag of Finland  FIN Athletics 1920–1928 9 3 0
   12
   Spitz, Mark Mark Spitz Flag of United States  USA Swimming 1968–1972 9
   1 1 11
   Lewis, CarlCarl Lewis Flag of United States  USA Athletics 1984–1996 9
   1 0 10
   Dæhlie, Bjørn Bjørn Dæhlie Flag of Norway  NOR Cross-country skiing
   1992–1998 8 4 0 12
   Fischer, Birgit Birgit Fischer Flag of Germany  GER Canoeing
   (flatwater) 1980–2004 8 4 0 12
   Kato, Sawao Sawao Kato Flag of Japan  JPN Gymnastics 1968–1976 8 3 1 12
   Thompson, Jenny Jenny Thompson Flag of United States  USA Swimming
   1992–2004 8 3 1 12
   Biondi, Matt Matt Biondi Flag of United States  USA Swimming 1984–1992
   8 2 1 11
   Ewry, Ray Ray Ewry Flag of United States  USA Athletics 1900–1908 10 0
   0 10

Olympic Games host cities

   By 2010, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 41 cities in 22
   countries. In 2012, London will become the first city to have hosted
   the Olympic Games three times.

   The number in parentheses following the city/country denotes how many
   times that city/country had then hosted the games.

   CAPTION: Olympic Games host cities

                  Summer Olympic Games Winter Olympic Games
   Year № Host city Country № Host city Country
   1896 I Athens (1) Flag of Greece  Greece (1)
   1900 II Paris (1) Flag of France  France (1)
   1904 III St. Louis,^(1) (1) Flag of United States  United States (1)
   1906 Intercalated Athens Flag of Greece  Greece
   1908 IV London (1) Flag of United Kingdom  United Kingdom (1)
   1912 V Stockholm (1) Flag of Sweden  Sweden (1)
   1916 VI ^(2) Berlin Flag of Germany  Germany
   1920 VII Antwerp (1) Flag of Belgium  Belgium (1)
   1924 VIII Paris (2) Flag of France  France (2) I Chamonix (1) Flag of
   France  France (1)
   1928 IX Amsterdam (1) Flag of Netherlands  Netherlands (1) II St Moritz
   (1) Flag of Switzerland  Switzerland (1)
   1932 X Los Angeles (1) Flag of United States  United States (2) III
   Lake Placid, New York (1) Flag of United States  United States (1)
   1936 XI Berlin (1) Flag of Germany  Germany (1) IV
   Garmisch-Partenkirchen (1) Flag of Germany  Germany (1)
   1940 XII ^(3) Tokyo→
   Helsinki Flag of Japan  Japan→
   Flag of Finland  Finland V ^(2) Sapporo→
   St Moritz→
   Garmisch-Partenkirchen Flag of Japan  Japan→
   Flag of Switzerland  Switzerland→
   Flag of Germany  Germany
   1944 XIII ^(3) London Flag of United Kingdom  United Kingdom V ^(3)
   Cortina d'Ampezzo Flag of Italy  Italy
   1948 XIV London (2) Flag of United Kingdom  United Kingdom (2) V St
   Moritz (2) Flag of Switzerland  Switzerland (2)
   1952 XV Helsinki (1) Flag of Finland  Finland (1) VI Oslo (1) Flag of
   Norway  Norway (1)
   1956 XVI Melbourne (1) +
   Stockholm (2)^(4) Flag of Australia  Australia (1) +
   Flag of Sweden  Sweden (2) VII Cortina d'Ampezzo (1) Flag of Italy
   Italy (1)
   1960 XVII Rome (1) Flag of Italy  Italy (1) VIII Squaw Valley,
   California (1) Flag of United States  United States (2)
   1964 XVIII Tokyo (1) Flag of Japan  Japan (1) IX Innsbruck (1) Flag of
   Austria  Austria (1)
   1968 XIX Mexico City (1) Flag of Mexico  Mexico (1) X Grenoble (1) Flag
   of France  France (2)
   1972 XX Munich (1) Flag of West Germany   West Germany (2) XI Sapporo
   (1) Flag of Japan  Japan (1)
   1976 XXI Montreal (1) Flag of Canada  Canada (1) XII Innsbruck (2) Flag
   of Austria  Austria (2)
   1980 XXII Moscow (1) Flag of Soviet Union  Soviet Union (1) XIII Lake
   Placid, New York (2) Flag of United States  United States (3)
   1984 XXIII Los Angeles (2) Flag of United States  United States (3) XIV
   Sarajevo (1) Flag of Yugoslavia  Yugoslavia (1)
   1988 XXIV Seoul (1) Flag of South Korea  South Korea (1) XV Calgary (1)
   Flag of Canada  Canada (1)
   1992 XXV Barcelona (1) Flag of Spain  Spain (1) XVI Albertville (1)
   Flag of France  France (3)
   1994 XVII Lillehammer (1) Flag of Norway  Norway (2)
   1996 XXVI Atlanta (1) Flag of United States  United States (4)
   1998 XVIII Nagano (1) Flag of Japan  Japan (2)
   2000 XXVII Sydney (1) Flag of Australia  Australia (2)
   2002 XIX Salt Lake City, Utah (1) Flag of United States  United States
   (4)
   2004 XXVIII Athens (2) Flag of Greece  Greece (2)
   2006 XX Turin (Torino) (1) Flag of Italy  Italy (2)
   2008 XXIX Beijing (1) ^(5) Flag of People's Republic of China  China
   (1)
   2010 XXI Vancouver (1) Flag of Canada  Canada (2)
   2012 XXX London (3) Flag of United Kingdom  United Kingdom (3)
   ^1 Originally awarded to Chicago, but moved to St. Louis to coincide
   with the World's Fair
   ^2 Canceled due to World War I
   ^3 Canceled due to World War II
   ^4 Equestrian events were held in Stockholm, Sweden.
   ^5 Equestrian events will be held in Hong Kong.
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