   #copyright

Norse mythology

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Myths

   The Norse gods were mortal, and only through Iðunn's apples could they
   hope to live until Ragnarök. Image by J. Penrose, 1890.
   Enlarge
   The Norse gods were mortal, and only through Iðunn's apples could they
   hope to live until Ragnarök. Image by J. Penrose, 1890.


   CAPTION: Topics in Norse mythology

   Æsir (gods) Andhrímnir, Baldr, Borr, Bragi, Búri, Dagr, Delling,
   Forseti, Heimdall, Hermóðr, Höðr, Hœnir, Kvasir, Lóðurr, Loki, Móði and
   Magni, Óðr, Odin, Ríg, Thor, Tyr, Váli, Ve, Vidar, Vili
   Ásynjur (goddesses) Bil, Eir, Frigg, Fulla, Gefjun, Gná, Hlín, Iðunn,
   Jord, Lofn, Nanna, Nótt, Saga, Sif, Sigyn, Sjöfn, Snotra, Sol, Syn,
   Var, Vör, Þrúðr
   Vanir
   (gods and goddesses) Freyr ( Yngvi), Freyja, Gullveig, Nerthus, Njord,
   Ullr
   Norns (fates) Urd, Verdandi, Skuld
   Valkyries Brynhildr, Göndul, Gunnr, Hildr, Hlaðgunnr, Róta, Skuld,
   Sigrdrífa, Sigrún, Skögul, Sváva, Þrúðr
   Elves ( Álfar) Beyla, Byggvir, Dökkálfar, Svartálfar, Volund
   Jotuns (giants) Ægir, Angrboda, Baugi, Beli, Bergelmir, Bestla,
   Billing, Bolthorn, Byleist, Elli, Fárbauti, Fenja, Fjalar, Fornjót,
   Geirrod, Gerd, Gjálp and Greip, Gilling, Grid, Gunnlod, Gymir, Hel,
   Hrym, Hræsvelgr, Hrod, Hrungnir, Hymir, Hyndla, Hyrrokkin, Járnsaxa,
   Kari, Laufey, Loki, Mani (moon), Menja, Modgunn, Mundilfari, Muspel,
   Mökkurkálfi, Narfi, Olvaldi, Ragnhild, Rán, Rind, Skaði, Snær, Suttung,
   Surtur, Thokk, Þjazi, Þrúðgelmir, Þrymr, Utgardaloki, Vafthruthnir,
   Ymir
   Dwarves Alvíss, Andvari, Berling, Brokk, Durin, Dvalin, Eitri, Fafnir,
   Fjalar and Galar, Gandalf, Hjuki, Hreidmar, Litr, Lofar, Nordri, Sudri,
   Austri and Vestri, Nyi and Nidi, Otr, Regin, Sindri
   Humans Adils, Agne, Ask, Aslaug (Kraka), Björn Ironside, Bödvar Bjarki,
   Berserkers, Dag the Wise, Domalde, Draugr, Dyggve, Egil, Einherjar,
   Embla, Erik and Alrik, Fjölnir, Frodi, Glam, Grimhild, Gylfi,
   Haddingjar, Hagbard and Signy, Haki, Halfdan, Halfdan the Old, Harald
   Hildetand, Hedin, Helgi Hundingsbane, Hjalmar, Hrólf Kraki, Hugleik,
   Hvitserk, Ingeborg, Ingjald, Jorund, Karl, Krimhild, Lif and
   Lifthrasir, Marmennill, Nór, Ottar, Raum the Old, Röskva, Sigar,
   Siggeir, Sigmund, Signy, Sigurd, Sigurd Ring, Sinfjötli, Skagul Toste,
   Skirnir, Sveigder, Svipdag, Þjálfi, Vanlade, Völva, Yngvi and Alf, Yrsa
   Beasts Arvak and Alsvid, Auðumbla, Blóðughófi, Eikþyrnir, Fenrisulfr,
   Garm, Geri and Freki, Grani, Gullinbursti, Gullinkambi, Gulltopp, Hati,
   Heiðrún, Hildisvíni, Hófvarpnir, Hræsvelgr, Hrímfaxi, Hugin and Munin,
   Jörmungandr, Lindorm, Mánagarmr, Níðhöggr, Ratatosk, Skinfaxi, Skoll,
   Sleipnir, Svadilfari, Sæhrímnir, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, Varulf,
   Veðrfölnir
   Locations Álfheim, Ásgard, Barri, Bifröst, Bilskirnir, Breidablik,
   Élivágar, Eliudnir, Fensalir, Fólkvangr, Gimlé, Ginnungagap, Gjallar
   Bridge, Gjöll, Gladsheim, Glasir, Glitnir, Gnipahellir, Helgrindr,
   Helveg, Himinbjörg, Hindarfjall, Hörgr, Körmt and Örmt, Idavoll,
   Jötunheimr, Ironwood, Hlidskjalf, Midgard, Muspelheim, Mirkwood,
   Náströnd, Niflheim, Noatun, Sessrúmnir, Singasteinn, Slidr River,
   Sökkvabekkr, Þrúðvangr, Þrymheimr, Utgard, Valhalla, Vanaheim,
   Hvergelmir, Vigrid, Vimur, Vingólf, Ýdalir, Yggdrasil
   Artifacts Andvarinaut, Brisingamen, Draupnir, Eldhrímnir, Gand,
   Gjallarhorn, Gleipnir, Gram, Grotte, Gungnir, Helskor, Megingjord, Well
   of Mimir, Misteltein, Mjölnir, Naglfar, Óðrerir, Reginnaglar,
   Hringhorni, Skíðblaðnir, Tyrfing, Well of Urd
   Worship Blót, Hörgr, Human sacrifice, Seid, Sumbel, Temple at Uppsala,
   Thor's Hammer, Völva, Yule

   Norse or Scandinavian mythology comprises the pre-Christian religion,
   beliefs and legends of the Scandinavian people, including those who
   settled on Iceland, where the written sources for Norse mythology were
   assembled. (When using the term "Scandinavian," however, it is
   important to note that Finnish mythology forms a separate creed,
   although it shares some similarities with Norse mythology.) Norse
   mythology is the best-preserved version of the older common Germanic
   mythology, which also includes the closely related Anglo-Saxon
   mythology. Germanic mythology, in its turn, had evolved from an earlier
   Indo-European mythology.

   Norse mythology is a collection of beliefs and stories shared by
   Northern Germanic tribes. It was not a revealed religion, in that it
   was not a truth handed down from the divine to the mortal (although it
   does have tales of normal persons learning the stories of the gods from
   a visit to or from the gods), and it had no scripture. The mythology
   was orally transmitted in the form of long, regular poetry. Oral
   transmission continued through the Viking Age, and our knowledge about
   it is mainly based on the Eddas and other medieval texts written down
   during and after Christianisation.

   In Scandinavian folklore, these beliefs held on the longest, and in
   rural areas some traditions have been maintained until today. Others
   have recently been revived or reinvented as Germanic Neopaganism. The
   mythology also remains as an inspiration in literature (see Norse
   mythological influences on later literature) as well as on stage
   productions and movies.

Cosmology

   In Norse mythology, the earth is represented as a flat disc. This disk
   is situated in the branches of the world tree, or Yggdrasil. Asgard,
   where the gods lived, was located at the centre of the disc, and could
   only be reached by walking across the rainbow (the Bifröst bridge). The
   Giants lived in an abode called Jötunheimr (giant realm).

   A cold, dark abode called Niflheim was ruled by Hel, daughter of Loki.
   According to the Prose Edda this was the eventual dwelling-place of
   most of the dead. Located somewhere in the south was the fiery realm of
   Muspell, home of the fire giants.

   Further otherworldly realms include Álfheim, home of the light-elves
   (ljósálfar), Svartálfaheim, home of the dark-elves, and Nidavellir,
   home of the dwarves. In between Asgard and Niflheim was Midgard, the
   world of men (see also Middle-earth).

   The cosmology of Norse mythology also involves a strong element of
   duality: for example the night and the day have their own mythological
   counterparts Dagr/ Skinfaxi and Nótt/ Hrímfaxi, the sun and the chasing
   wolf Sol and Skoll, the moon and its chasing wolf Mani and Hati, and
   the total opposites of Niflheim and Muspell is the origin of the world.
   This might have reflected a deeper metaphysical belief in opposites as
   the foundation of the world.

Supernatural beings

   Thor often fought the giants.
   Enlarge
   Thor often fought the giants.

   There are three "clans" of deities, the Æsir, the Vanir, and the Jötnar
   (referred to as giants in this article). The distinction between Æsir
   and Vanir is relative, for the two are said to have made peace,
   exchanged hostages, intermarried and reigned together after a prolonged
   war, which the Æsir had finally won. Some gods belong in both camps.
   Some scholars have speculated that this tale symbolized the way the
   gods of invading Indo-European tribes supplanted older nature-deities
   of the aboriginal peoples, although it should be firmly noted that this
   is conjecture. Other authorities (compare Mircea Eliade and J.P.
   Mallory) consider the Æsir/Vanir division to be simply the Norse
   expression of a general Indo-European division of divinities, parallel
   to that of Olympians and Titans in Greek mythology, and in parts of the
   Mahabharata.

   The Æsir and the Vanir are generally enemies with the Jötnar (singular
   Jötunn or Jotun; Old English Eotenas or Entas). They are comparable to
   the Titans and Gigantes of Greek mythology and generally translated as
   "giants", although " trolls" and " demons" have been suggested as
   suitable alternatives. However, the Æsir are descendants of Jötnar and
   both Æsir and Vanir intermarry with them. Some of the giants are
   mentioned by name in the Eddas, and they seem to be representations of
   natural forces. There are two general types of giant: frost-giants and
   fire-giants. There were also elves and dwarfs, whose role is shadowy
   but who are generally thought to side with the gods.

   In addition, there are many other supernatural beings: Fenrir the
   gigantic wolf, and Jörmungandr the sea-serpent (or "worm") that is
   coiled around the world. These two monsters are described as the
   progeny of Loki, the trickster-god, and a giant (Hel is the third of
   these offspring). More benevolent creatures are Hugin and Munin
   (thought and memory, respectfully), the two ravens who keep Odin, the
   chief god, apprised of what is happening on earth, and Ratatosk, the
   squirrel which scampers in the branches of the world ash, Yggdrasil,
   which is central to the conception of this world.

   Along with many other polytheistic religions, this mythology lacks the
   good-evil dualism of the Middle Eastern tradition. Thus, Loki is not
   primarily an adversary of the gods, though he is often portrayed in the
   stories as the nemesis to the protagonist Thor, and the giants are not
   so much fundamentally evil, as rude, boisterous, and uncivilized. The
   dualism that exists is not good vs evil, but order vs chaos. The gods
   represent order and structure whereas the giants and the monsters
   represent chaos and disorder.

Völuspá: the origin and end of the world

   The origin and eventual fate of the world are described in Völuspá
   ("The völva's prophecy" or "The sybil's prophecy"), one of the most
   striking poems in the Poetic Edda. These haunting verses contain one of
   the most vivid creation accounts in all of religious history and a
   representation of the eventual destruction of the world that is unique
   in its attention to detail.

   In the Völuspá, Odin, the chief god of the Norse pantheon, has conjured
   up the spirit of a dead Völva ( Shaman or sybil) and commanded this
   spirit to reveal the past and the future. She is reluctant: "What do
   you ask of me? Why tempt me?"; but since she is already dead, she shows
   no fear of Odin, and continually taunts him: "Well, would you know
   more?" But Odin insists: if he is to fulfil his function as king of the
   gods, he must possess all knowledge. Once the sybil has revealed the
   secrets of past and future, she falls back into oblivion: "I sink now".

The beginning

   The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree
   of the world.
   Enlarge
   The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree
   of the world.

   In the beginning there was the world of ice Niflheim, and the world of
   fire Muspelheim, and between them was the Ginnungagap, a "grinning (or
   yawning) gap," in which nothing lived. In Ginnungagap, the fire and the
   ice met, and the fire of Muspelheim licked the ice shaping a primordial
   giant Ymir and a giant cow, Auðumbla whose milk fed Ymir. The cow
   licked the ice, creating the first god, Búri, who was the father of
   Borr, in turn the father of the first Æsir, Odin, and his brothers Vili
   and Ve. Ymir was a hermaphrodite and alone procreated the race of
   giants. Then Borr's sons; Odin, Vili, and Ve; slaughtered Ymir and,
   from his body, created the world. From his skull, Odin, Vili, and Ve
   created the vault of the sky, which was supported by four dwarfs:
   Austri, Vestri, Sudri, and Nordri. The gods regulated the passage of
   the days and nights, as well as the seasons. The first human beings
   were Ask and Embla ( ash and elm), who were carved from the wood of two
   trees and brought to life by the gods Odin, Hœnir/Vili, and Lóðurr/Vé.
   Odin gave them life; Vili gave consciousness; and Ve provided senses.
   Sol is the goddess of the sun, a daughter of Mundilfari, and wife of
   Glen. Every day, she rides through the sky on her chariot, pulled by
   two horses named Alsvid and Arvak. This passage is known as Alfrodull,
   meaning "glory of elves," which in turn was a common kenning for the
   sun. Sol is chased during the day by Skoll, a wolf that wants to devour
   her. Solar eclipses signify that Skoll has almost caught up to her. It
   is fated that Skoll will eventually catch Sol and eat her; however, she
   will be replaced by her daughter. Sol's brother, the moon, Mani, is
   chased by Hati, another wolf. The earth is protected from the full heat
   of the sun by Svalin, who stands between the earth and Sol. In Norse
   belief, the sun did not give light, which instead emanated from the
   manes of Arvak and Alsvid.

   The sybil describes the great ash tree Yggdrasil and the three norns
   (female symbols of inexorable fate; their names; Urðr ( Urd),
   Verðandandi ( Verdandi), and Skuld; indicate the past, present, and
   future), who spin the threads of fate beneath it. She describes the
   primeval war between Æsir and Vanir and the murder of Baldr. Then she
   turns her attention to the future.

The end times ( Eschatological beliefs)

   The Old Norse vision of the future is bleak. In the end, it was
   believed, the forces of chaos will outnumber and overcome the divine
   and human guardians of order. Loki and his monstrous children will
   burst their bonds; the dead will sail from Niflheim to attack the
   living. Heimdall, the watchman of the gods, will summon the heavenly
   host with a blast on his horn. Then will ensue a final battle between
   order and chaos (Ragnarök), which the gods will lose, as is their fate.
   The gods, aware of this, will gather the finest warriors, the
   Einherjar, to fight on their side when the day comes, but in the end
   they will be powerless to prevent the world from descending into the
   chaos out of which it has once emerged; the gods and their world will
   be destroyed. Odin himself will be swallowed by Fenrir.

   Still, there will be a few survivors, both human and divine, who will
   populate a new world, to start the cycle anew. Or so the sybil tells
   us; scholars are divided on the question whether this is a later
   addition to the myth that betrays Christian influence. If
   pre-Christian, the eschatology of the Völuspá may reflect an older
   Indo-European tradition related with the eschatology of Persian
   Zoroastrianism.

Kings and heroes

   The Ramsund carving depicting passages from the Völsunga saga
   Enlarge
   The Ramsund carving depicting passages from the Völsunga saga

   The mythological literature relates the legends of heroes and kings, as
   well as supernatural creatures. These clan and kingdom founding figures
   possessed great importance as illustrations of proper action or
   national origins. The heroic literature may have fulfilled the same
   function as the national epic in other European literatures, or it may
   have been more nearly related to tribal identity. Many of the legendary
   figures probably existed, and generations of Scandinavian scholars have
   tried to extract history from myth in the sagas.

   Sometimes the same hero resurfaces in several forms depending on which
   part of the Germanic world the epics survived such as Weyland/ Völund
   and Siegfried/ Sigurd, and probably Beowulf/ Bödvar Bjarki. Other
   notable heroes are Hagbard, Starkad, Ragnar Lodbrok, Sigurd Ring, Ivar
   Vidfamne and Harald Hildetand. Notable are also the shieldmaidens who
   were "ordinary" women who had chosen the path of the warrior. These
   women function both as heroines and as obstacles to the heroic journey.

   The Ancient Germans were above all other things a race of proud and
   noble warriors. Their legends abound in instances of heroism and
   bravery and through their mythology we see a society thaty was based
   around warfare and the love of battle. An old Germanic saying passed
   down was "Why get somthing with the sweat off my back that I can get
   with the shedding of my own blood?", showing the perference of battle
   and plunder over (what we would call) an honest days work. The
   Valkieryes (Variable spellings exist of course) were the fearsome
   handmaidens of Odin and the warriors of Valhalla. The Valkieryes would
   fly over the battle feild and would take warriors who died in combat to
   Valhalla where they would feast during the evening and fight in the
   morning until they would be called together to fight on Ragnarrok.
   Depending on the Tribal version the Valkieryes would either pick the
   greatest of the warriors, who would then go into a selfless craze until
   they were killed, or any warrior who died in battle (furthermore some
   tribes believed that one simply had to choose to live a warriors life
   and could die anyway they pleased).

Norse worship

Centres of faith

   Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in Sweden until the temple was
   destroyed the late 11th century.
   Enlarge
   Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in Sweden until the temple was
   destroyed the late 11th century.

   The Germanic tribes rarely or never had temples in a modern sense. The
   Blót, the form of worship practiced by the ancient Germanic and
   Scandinavian people resembled that of the Celts and Balts : it could
   occur in sacred groves. It could also take place at home and/or at a
   simple altar of piled stones known as a " horgr". However, there seems
   to have been a few more important centres, such as Skiringsal, Lejre
   and Uppsala. Adam of Bremen claims that there was a temple in Uppsala
   (see Temple at Uppsala) with three wooden statues of Thor, Odin and
   Freyr.

Priests

   While a kind of priesthood seems to have existed, it never took on the
   professional and semi-hereditary character of the Celtic druidical
   class. This was because the shamanistic tradition was maintained by
   women, the Völvas. It is often said that the Germanic kingship evolved
   out of a priestly office. This priestly role of the king was in line
   with the general role of godi, who was the head of a kindred group of
   families (for this social structure, see norse clans), and who
   administered the sacrifices.

   Despite the Shamanistic Völvas, this religion was not a form of
   Shamanism.

Human sacrifice

   Carl Larsson, "Midwinter Sacrifice", 1915: the sacrifice of King
   Domalde at Gamla Uppsala.
   Enlarge
   Carl Larsson, "Midwinter Sacrifice", 1915: the sacrifice of King
   Domalde at Gamla Uppsala.

   A unique eye-witness account of Germanic human sacrifice survives in
   Ibn Fadlan's account of a Rus ship burial, where a slave-girl had
   volunteered to accompany her lord to the next world. More indirect
   accounts are given by Tacitus, Saxo Grammaticus and Adam von Bremen.

   However, the Ibn Fadlan account is actually a burial ritual. Current
   understanding of Norse mythology suggests an ulterior motive to the
   slave-girl's 'sacrifice'. It is believed that in Norse mythology a
   woman who joined the corpse of a man on the funeral pyre would be that
   man's wife in the next world. For a slave girl to become the wife of a
   lord was an obvious increase in status. Although both religions are of
   the Indo-European tradition, the sacrifice described in the Ibn Fadlan
   account is not to be confused with the practice of Sati.

   The Heimskringla tells of Swedish King Aun who sacrificed nine of his
   sons in an effort to prolong his life until his subjects stopped him
   from killing his last son Egil. According to Adam of Bremen, the
   Swedish kings sacrificed male slaves every ninth year during the Yule
   sacrifices at the Temple at Uppsala. The Swedes had the right not only
   to elect kings but also to depose them, and both king Domalde and king
   Olof Trätälja are said to have been sacrificed after years of famine.

   Odin was associated with death by hanging, and a possible practice of
   Odinic sacrifice by strangling has some archeological support in the
   existence of bodies perfectly preserved by the acid of the Jutland
   (later taken over by Danish people) peatbogs, into which they were cast
   after having been strangled. An example is Tollund Man. However, we
   possess no written accounts that explicitly interpret the cause of
   these stranglings, which could obviously have other explanations.

Interactions with Christianity

   An 1830 portrayal of Ansgar, a Christian missionary invited to Sweden
   by its king Björn at Hauge in 829.
   Enlarge
   An 1830 portrayal of Ansgar, a Christian missionary invited to Sweden
   by its king Björn at Hauge in 829.

   An important problem in interpreting this mythology is that often the
   closest accounts that we have to "pre-contact" times were written by
   Christians. The Younger Edda and the Heimskringla were written by
   Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, over two hundred years after
   Iceland became Christianized. This results in Snorri's works carrying a
   large amount of Euhemerism.

   Virtually all of the saga literature came out of Iceland, a relatively
   small and remote island, and even in the climate of religious tolerance
   there, Snorri was guided by an essentially Christian viewpoint. The
   Heimskringla provides some interesting insights into this issue. Snorri
   introduces Odin as a mortal warlord in Asia who acquires magical
   powers, settles in Sweden, and becomes a demi-god following his death.
   Having undercut Odin's divinity, Snorri then provides the story of a
   pact of Swedish King Aun with Odin to prolong his life by sacrificing
   his sons. Later in the Heimskringla, Snorri records in detail how
   converts to Christianity such as Saint Olaf Haraldsson brutally
   converted Scandinavians to Christianity.
   One gruesome form of execution occurred during the christianization of
   Norway. King Olaf Tryggvason had male völvas (sejdmen) tied and left on
   a skerry at ebb.
   Enlarge
   One gruesome form of execution occurred during the christianization of
   Norway. King Olaf Tryggvason had male völvas (sejdmen) tied and left on
   a skerry at ebb.

   Trying to avert civil war, the Icelandic parliament voted in
   Christianity, but for some years tolerated heathenry in the privacy of
   one's home. Sweden, on the other hand, had a series of civil wars in
   the 11th century, which ended with the burning of the Temple at
   Uppsala. In England, on the other hand, Christianization occurred
   earlier and sporadically, rarely by force. Conversion by coercion was
   sporadic throughout the areas where Norse gods had been worshipped.
   However, the conversion did not happen overnight. Christian clergy did
   their utmost to teach the populace that the Norse gods were demons, but
   their success was limited and the gods never became evil in the popular
   mind in most of Scandinavia.

   Two centrally located and far from isolated settlements can illustrate
   how long the Christianization took. Archaeological studies of graves at
   the Swedish island of Lovön have shown that the Christianisation took
   150-200 years, and this was a location close to the kings and bishops.
   Likewise in the bustling trading town of Bergen, many runic
   inscriptions have been found from the 13th century, among the Bryggen
   inscriptions. One of them says may Thor receive you, may Odin own you,
   and a second one is a galdra which says I carve curing runes, I carve
   salvaging runes, once against the elves, twice against the trolls,
   thrice against the thurs. The second one also mentions the dangerous
   Valkyrie Skögul.

   Otherwise there are few accounts from the 14th to the 18th century, but
   the clergy, such as Olaus Magnus (1555) wrote about the difficulties of
   extinguishing the old beliefs. The story related in Þrymskviða appears
   to have been unusually resilient, like the romantic story of Hagbard
   and Signy, and versions of both were recorded in the 17th century and
   as late as the 19th century. In the 19th and early 20th century Swedish
   folklorists documented what commoners believed, and what surfaced were
   many surviving traditions of the gods of Norse mythology. However, the
   traditions were by then far from the cohesive system of Snorri's
   accounts. Most gods had been forgotten and only the hunting Odin and
   the giant-slaying Thor figure in numerous legends. Freyja is mentioned
   a few times and Baldr only survives in legends about place names.

   Other elements of Norse mythology survived without being perceived as
   such, especially concerning supernatural beings in Scandinavian
   folklore. Moreover, the Norse belief in destiny has been very firm
   until modern times. Since the Christian hell resembled the abode of the
   dead in Norse mythology one of the names was borrowed from the old
   faith, Helvíti i.e. Hel's punishment. Some elements of the Yule
   traditions were preserved, such as the Swedish tradition of
   slaughtering the pig at Christmas ( Christmas ham), which originally
   was part of the sacrifice to Freyr.

Modern influences

      Day            Origin
   Monday    Moon's day
   Tuesday   Tyr's (Tiw's) day
   Wednesday Odin's (Wodin's) day
   Thursday  Thor's day
   Friday    Frigg's or Freyja's day
   Sunday    Sun's day

   The Germanic gods have left numerous traces in modern vocabulary and
   elements of every day western life in most Germanic language speaking
   countries. An example of this is some of the names of the days of the
   week: modelled after the names of the days of the week in Latin (named
   after Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn), the names for
   Tuesday through to Friday were replaced with Germanic equivalents of
   the Roman gods. In English, Saturn was not replaced, while Saturday is
   named after the sabbath in German, and is called "washing day" in
   Scandinavia.

Germanic neopaganism

   More recent have been attempts in both Europe and the United States to
   revive the old Germanic religion as Germanic Neopaganism, variously
   under the names of Ásatrú, Odinism, Wotanism, Forn Sed or Heathenry. In
   Iceland Ásatrú was recognized by the state as an official religion in
   1973, which legalized its marriage, child-naming and other ceremonies.
   It is also an official and legal religion in all the Nordic countries,
   though it is still fairly new.

Modern popular culture

   Norse mythology has also left a lot of influences in popular culture,
   in literature and modern fiction, and particularly in fantasy
   role-playing games.

   Norse mythology also influenced Richard Wagner's use of literary themes
   from it to compose the four operas that make up Der Ring des Nibelungen
   (The Ring of the Nibelung) - inspiring and laying the foundation for
   numerous similarly inspired works.

   Subsequently, J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings was admitted by
   its author to be heavily influenced by the myths of the Northern
   Europeans. As that work became popular, elements of its fantasy world
   moved steadily into popular perceptions of the fantasy genre. In nearly
   any modern fantasy novel today can be found such Norse creatures as
   elves, dwarves, and frost giants.

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