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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Health and medicine

   The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed
   to assist a person in identifying some significant personal
   preferences. Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers
   developed the Indicator during World War II, and its criteria follow
   from Carl Jung's theories in his work Psychological Types.

   The Indicator is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group
   dynamics, employee training, leadership training, marriage counseling,
   and personal development. However, scientific skeptics and academic
   psychologists have criticized the indicator in research literature,
   claiming that it "lacks convincing validity data" and could be an
   example of the Forer effect..

   The registered trademark rights in the phrase and its abbreviation have
   been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists
   Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust.

Historical development

   C. G. Jung first spoke about typology at the Munich Psychological
   Congress in 1913. Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into
   personality in 1917, developing a four-type framework: Social;
   Thoughtful; Executive; Spontaneous. In 1923 Jung's Psychological Types
   was published in English translation (having first been published in
   German in 1921). Katharine Briggs' first publications are two articles
   describing Jung's theory, in the journal New Republic in 1926 (Meet
   Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box) and 1928 (Up From Barbarism).
   Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning
   mystery novel Murder Yet to Come in 1929, using typological ideas. She
   added to her mother's typological research, which she would
   progressively take over entirely. In 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type
   Indicator®" was created, and the Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook
   was published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern
   form (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®) in 1956.

About the indicator

   The indicator differs from standardized tests and others measuring
   traits, such as intelligence, instead classifying people's preferred
   types. According to Myers-Briggs Theory, while types and traits are
   both inborn, traits can be improved akin to skills, whereas types, if
   supported by a healthy environment, naturally differentiate over time.
   The indicator attempts to tell the order in which this occurs in each
   person, and it is that information, combined with interviews done with
   others who have indicated having the same preferences, that the
   complete descriptions are based on. The indicator then, is akin to an
   arrow which attempts to point in the direction of the proper
   description. The facet of the theory which posits that the features
   being sorted for are in fact types, and not traits which can be
   improved with practice, is hotly debated.

   However, proponents of the indicator will explain that to learn about
   one's inborn traits is to create the opportunity to improve how one
   applies them in different contexts. In that sense, the MBTI can yield
   much personal change and growth.

   The types the MBTI sorts for, known as dichotomies, are extraversion /
   introversion, sensing / intuition, thinking / feeling and judging /
   perceiving. Participants are given one of 16 four-letter acronyms, such
   as ESTJ or INFP, indicating what their preferences are. The term
   best-fit types refers to the ethical code that facilitators are
   required to follow. It states that the person taking the indicator is
   always the best judge of what their preferences are and that the
   indicator alone should never be used to make this decision.

Items & Scoring

   The MBTI includes 93 forced-choice questions, which means there are
   only two options. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are
   unable to choose. Using psychometric techniques, such as item response
   theory, the MBTI will then be scored and will attempt to identify which
   dichotomy the participant prefers. After taking the MBTI, participants
   are given a readout of their score, which will include a bar graph and
   number of how many points they received on a certain scale. Confusion
   over the meaning of these numbers often causes them to be related to
   trait theory, and people mistakenly believe, for example, that their
   intuition is "more developed" than their sensing, or vice versa.

   During construction of the MBTI, thousands of items were used, and most
   were thrown out because they did not have high midpoint discrimination,
   meaning the results of that one item did not, on average, move an
   individual score away from the midpoint. Using only items with high
   midpoint discrimination allows the MBTI to have fewer items on it but
   still provide as much statistical information as other instruments with
   many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The MBTI requires
   five points one way or another before it is nearly as sure it can
   statistically be concerning a preference.

Type dynamics

                                                        The Sixteen Types
   ISTJ ISFJ INFJ                                                    INTJ
   ISTP ISFP INFP                                                    INTP
   ESTP ESFP ENFP                                                    ENTP
   ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ                                                    ENTJ
   The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers, who
      preferred INFP (To find the opposite type of the one you are looking
                                       at, jump over one type diagonally.)

                                                      Population Breakdown
                                                                      ISTJ
                                                                11.6% ISFJ
                                                                13.8% INFJ
                                                                 1.5% INTJ
                                                                      2.1%
                                                                      ISTP
                                                                 5.4% ISFP
                                                                 8.8% INFP
                                                                 4.4% INTP
                                                                      3.3%
                                                                      ESTP
                                                                 4.3% ESFP
                                                                 8.5% ENFP
                                                                 8.1% ENTP
                                                                      3.2%
                                                                      ESTJ
                                                                 8.7% ESFJ
                                                                12.3% ENFJ
                                                                 2.4% ENTJ
                                                                      1.8%
   By using inferential statistics an estimate of the preferences found in
                                      the US population has been gathered.

   The interaction of two, three, or four preferences are known as type
   dynamics, and when dealing with a four-preference combination it is
   called a type. In total, there are 16 unique types, and many more
   possible two and three letter combinations, which each have their own
   descriptive name. Additionally, it is sometimes possible to observe the
   interactions that each preference combination will have with another
   combination, although this is more unorthodox. Complete descriptions
   will contain the unique interactions of all four preferences in that
   person, and these are typically written by licensed psychologists based
   on data gathered from thousands of interviews and studies. The Centre
   for Applications of Psychological Type has released short descriptions
   on the internet. The most in-depth descriptions, including statistics,
   can be found in The Manual.

The type table

   The type table is a visualization tool which is useful for discussing
   the dynamic qualities and interactions of preference combinations. It
   will typically be divided by selecting any pair of preferences and
   comparing or contrasting. One of the most common and basic has been
   used to the right. It is the grouping of the mental functions, ST, SF,
   NF and NT, and focuses on the combination of perception and judgment.
   Alternatively, if we group by the rows we will have the four attitudes
   which are IJ, IP, EP and EJ. There are also more complex groupings,
   such as combinations of perception and orientations to the outer world,
   which are SJ, SP, NP and NJ, or combinations of judgement and
   orientations to the outer world, which are TJ, TP, FP, and FJ.

Cognitive function dynamics in each type

   In each type, all four of the cognitive, or mental functions, which are
   sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling, are present and arranged in a
   different order. The type acronym is used as a quick way to figure out
   this order, which is slightly different in introverts and extraverts.
   An important point to remember is that the first and last letter of the
   type are used as guides to figure out the order of the middle two
   letters, which are the main priority. The chart below this section has
   the dynamics worked out for each type.

Extraverts

   If the first letter of the type is an E, such as ESTJ, then the
   dominant function is extraverted. The next step is to figure out to
   which of the middle two letters this applies. If the last letter is a
   P, then the dominant will be the second letter, the perceiving
   function, Sensing in this example, and if it is a J, then it will be
   the third letter, the judging function - in this case, Thinking. Thus,
   we can tell that the first or dominant function in the ESTJ is
   extraverted thinking, and the second is introverted sensing. The third
   function is the opposite of the second, and in this case is extraverted
   intuition, and the fourth is introverted feeling.

Introverts

   If the first letter of the type is an I, such as in INFP, then the
   dominant is introverted. To figure out which of the middle two letters
   this applies to, look at the last letter, which indicates which
   function is extraverted. If it is a P, then the introverted dominant
   function will be the third letter, which is the judging function, and
   if it is a J, then it will be the second letter, which is the
   perceiving function. (The process may seem backwards and slightly
   confusing for introverts.) Already it is possible to tell that the INFP
   has an introverted dominant, and since their perceiving function
   (iNtuition) is extraverted, the dominant must be the judging function
   (Feeling). Thus the dominant function is introverted feeling, and the
   second function (the auxiliary) is extraverted intuition.

   The four functions alternate in orientation. For introverts, the
   sequence would proceed introverted, extraverted, introverted,
   extraverted. The third function (the tertiary) is the opposite of the
   second, and the fourth is the opposite of the first. For an INFP, with
   introverted feeling and extraverted intuition, the third function is
   introverted sensing, and the fourth is extraverted thinking.

Function table

                                    Type
                                 IS[I]T[E]J
                                 IS[I]F[E]J
                                 IN[I]F[E]J
                                 IN[I]T[E]J
          Dominant or first Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
                 Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
        Auxiliary or second Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
                  Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
         Tertiary or third Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
                  Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
       Inferior or fourth Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
                   Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
                                    Type
                                 IS[E]T[I]P
                                 IS[E]F[I]P
                                 IN[E]F[I]P
                                 IN[E]T[I]P
         Dominant or first Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
                  Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
         Auxiliary or second Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
                 Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
        Tertiary or third Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
                   Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
         Inferior or fourth Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
                  Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
                                    Type
                                 ES[E]T[I]P
                                 ES[E]F[I]P
                                 EN[E]F[I]P
                                 EN[E]T[I]P
          Dominant or first Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
                 Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
        Auxiliary or second Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
                  Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
         Tertiary or third Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
                  Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
       Inferior or fourth Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
                   Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
                                    Type
                                 ES[I]T[E]J
                                 ES[I]F[E]J
                                 EN[I]F[E]J
                                 EN[I]T[E]J
         Dominant or first Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
                  Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
         Auxiliary or second Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
                 Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
        Tertiary or third Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
                   Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
         Inferior or fourth Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
                  Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

   Below, the MBTI personality archetypes, after David West Keirsey .
   Keirsey adds four "Temperaments": SP - Artisan; SJ - Guardian; NF -
   Idealist; and NT - Rational.

                IS[I]T[E]J
                           IS[I]F[E]J
                                     IN[I]F[E]J
                                                IN[I]T[E]J
                Inspector  Protector Counselor  Mastermind
                IS[E]T[I]P
                           IS[E]F[I]P
                                     IN[E]F[I]P
                                                IN[E]T[I]P
                 Crafter    Composer   Healer    Architect
                ES[E]T[I]P
                           ES[E]F[I]P
                                     EN[E]F[I]P
                                                EN[E]T[I]P
                 Promoter  Performer  Champion   Inventor
                ES[I]T[E]J
                           ES[I]F[E]J
                                     EN[I]F[E]J
                                                EN[I]T[E]J
                Supervisor  Provider  Teacher  Field Marshal

Controversy surrounding the cognitive functions

   Isabel Myers interpreted Jung's writing as saying that the auxiliary,
   tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of
   the dominant . Many , however, have found Jung's writing to be
   ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians)
   are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect . Some Jungian s assert
   that Jung made explicit the point that the tertiary function is
   actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance. More
   recently , typologists have examined the relationships between all four
   functions in both attitudes —introverted or extroverted. Whether
   looking at the four functions, or eight "function attitudes," the
   inferior function remains most unconscious (least developed).

Temperament

                                                              Temperament
                                SJ   SP   NF                           NT
                              iStJ iSfJ iNFj                         iNTj
                              iStP iSfP iNFp                         iNTp
                              eStP eSfP eNFp                         eNTp
                              eStJ eSfJ eNFj                         eNTj
                              Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.

   Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher who lived from 460-377 B.C., proposed
   four humours in his writings. These were blood, phlegm, yellow bile and
   black bile. Around A.D. 190, Galen corresponded these to four
   temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. In 1978,
   David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates reintroduced temperament theory in
   modern form and identified them as Artisan, Guardian, Idealist, and
   Rational. After developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey
   discovered the MBTI, and found that by combining Sensing with the
   perceiving functions, SP ( Artisan) and SJ ( Guardian), and iNtuition
   with the judging functions, NF ( Idealist) and NT ( Rational), he had
   descriptions similar to his four temperaments.

   The Manual states on page 59 that, "It is important to recognize that
   temperament theory is not a variant of type theory, nor is type theory
   a variant of temperament theory." Keirsey later went on to develop the
   Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which was first included in his book Please
   Understand Me.

Correlations to Other Instruments

   McCrae & Costa present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big
   Five personality construct, which is a conglomeration of
   characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological
   tests. The five personality characteristics are extraversion, openness,
   agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or
   neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 men
   followed as part of a longitudinal study of ageing. (Similar results
   were obtained with 201 women.)

        Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism
    E-I     -.74       .03        -.03             .08            .16
    S-N     .10        .72         .04            -.15           -.06
    T-F     .19        .02         .44            -.15            .06
    J-P     .15        .30        -.06            -.49            .11
     The closer the number is to 1.0 or -1.0, the higher the degree of
                                correlation.

   These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the Big
   Five personality traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are
   strongly related to extraversion and openness respectively. T-F and J-P
   are more weakly related to agreeableness and conscientiousness
   respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is
   largely absent from the MBTI.

Study of Scoring Consistency

   Split-half reliability of the MBTI scales is good, although test-retest
   reliability is sensitive to the time between tests. However, because
   the MBTI dichotomies scores in the middle of the distribution, type
   allocations are less reliable. Within each scale, as measured on Form
   G, about 83% of categorisations remain the same when retested within
   nine months, and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50%
   of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and
   36% remain the same after nine months.

Ethics

   Before purchasing the MBTI, practitioners are required to consent to an
   ethical code, in addition to meeting the educational requirements of
   class B and C psychological tests and assessments. After consenting to
   this code the usage of the indicator is largely unmonitored, which
   sometimes leads to abuses of the instrument. The ethical code contains,
   but is not limited to, the following points:
    1. Results should be given directly to respondents and are strictly
       confidential, including from employers.
    2. Respondents should be informed of the nature of the test before
       taking it, and must choose to take it voluntarily.
    3. Allow respondents to clarify their results. They are always the
       last word as to which type is truly theirs. They should then be
       provided a written description of their preferences.
    4. The test must be used in accordance with The Manual.

Skeptical claims against the MBTI

   The basic skeptical claim against the MBTI is that any conclusions made
   from the types lack falsifiability, which can cause confirmation bias
   in the interpretation of the results. It has also been argued that the
   terminology of the MBTI is so vague and complicated that it allows any
   kind of behaviour to fit any personality type, resulting in the Forer
   effect, where an individual gives a high rating to a positive
   description that supposedly applies specifically to them. Therefore it
   is difficult to validate any of the claims made by the MBTI using
   scientific methods. Carroll says, "no matter what your preferences,
   your behavior will still sometimes indicate contrasting behavior. Thus,
   no behavior can ever be used to falsify the type, and any behaviour can
   be used to verify it." Scientific skeptics such as Robert Todd Carroll,
   author of The Skeptic's Dictionary, have presented several potential
   problems with the MBTI. Neither Katharine Cook Briggs nor Isabel Briggs
   Myers had any scientific, medical, psychiatric or psychological
   qualifications; Isabel Briggs Myers had a bachelors degree in Political
   Science. The theory of psychological types created by Carl Jung was not
   based on any controlled studies —the only statistical study Jung
   performed was in the field of astrology. Jung's methods primarily
   included introspection and anecdote, methods largely rejected by the
   modern field of cognitive psychology.

   Skeptics also claim that the instrument's owners, publishers and test
   administrators, have a clear financial interest in promoting the test
   as scientific. Skeptics assert that the instrument's owners, publishers
   and test administrators thus may not be unbiased sources of information
   about this instrument. Indeed, much of the positive information
   presented about the MBTI is from the Consulting Psychologists Press
   (the MBTI's publishers) and associated organisations.

   The MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests, in which
   participants accept reports written for other participants, and are
   asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as
   a scientific assessment. The MBTI has also been criticised on the two
   measures of any psychometric test: validity and reliability. Test
   retest reliability is considered to be low, with test takers who retake
   the test often being assigned a different type. Validity has been
   questioned on theoretical grounds.

   Given the strong philosophical belief in the theory of types (as
   opposed to the continuum hypothesis), one might expect that scores
   would show a bimodal distribution with peaks near the ends of the
   scales. However, scores on the individual subscales are actually
   distributed in a peaked manner similar to a normal distribution. A
   cut-off exists at the centre of the subscale such that a score on one
   side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the
   opposite type. This fails to support the concept of type--the norm is
   for people to lie near the middle of the subscale .

   Forcing a dichotomy leads to people who are very small distances apart
   on their scores being categorised as being qualitatively different from
   one another because they fall on opposite sides of the cut-off, while
   being lumped in with much more extreme scores that fall on the same
   side of the cut-off.

   For this approach to be valid the sixteen different personality types
   in the MBTI should do more than simply tell us that someone scored
   above or below the cut-off score, it should pick-out a real subgroup of
   people who share characteristics over and above the score. This is in
   fact the view of the designers of the MBTI. However, the existence of
   these subtypes, independent of the underlying subscales has not been
   established.

Academic criticism of the MBTI

   As well as questioning the scientific validity of the MBTI others have
   argued that, while the MBTI may be useful for self-understanding, it is
   commonly used for pigeonholing people or for self-pigeonholing which
   may be of limited use or even detrimental

   The MBTI has also been criticised on the two measures of any
   psychometric test: validity and reliability. Test retest reliability is
   considered to be low, with test takers who retake the test often being
   assigned a different type.

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