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Myanmar

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Asian Countries;
Countries

                  Pyi-daung-zu Myan-mar Naing-ngan-daw
   Union of Myanmar

   Flag of Myanmar Coat of arms of Myanmar
   Flag            Coat of arms
   Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei
   Location of Myanmar
          Capital        Naypyidaw
                         19°45′N 96°12′E
       Largest city      Yangon
    Official languages   Myanmar (Burmese)
   Government            Military junta
    - Chairman, SPDC     Sr. Gen. Than Shwe
    - Prime Minister     Gen. Soe Win
       Independence      From the United Kingdom
    - Date               January 4, 1948
                                  Area
    - Total              676,578 km² ( 40th)
                         261,227 sq mi
    - Water (%)          3.06%
                               Population
    - July 2005 estimate 50,519,000^1 ( 24th)
    - 1983 census        33,234,000
    - Density            75/km² ( 119th)
                         193/sq mi
        GDP ( PPP)       2005 estimate
    - Total              $93.77 billion ( 59th)
    - Per capita         $1,691 ( 150th)
        HDI  (2003)      0.578 (medium) ( 129th)
         Currency        kyat (K) ( mmK)
         Time zone       MMT ( UTC+6:30)
       Internet TLD      .mm
       Calling code      +95
   ^1Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess
   mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher
   infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and
   changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would
   otherwise be expected.

   Myanmar, officially the Union of Myanmar (pronounced [pjìdàunzṵ mjəmà
   nàinŋàndɔ̀]) is the largest country by geographical area in mainland
   Southeast Asia. On 4 January 1948 Burma achieved independence from
   Great Britain as the “Union of Burma”. Subsequent name changes were on
   4 January 1974 to the “Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma”; 23
   Septmber 1988 to the “Union of Burma” and, since 18 June 1989, the
   “Union of Myanmar”. Also known as Burma or the Union of Burma by bodies
   and states which do not recognize the ruling military junta, it is
   bordered by the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the
   east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and India on
   the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal
   to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930 km
   (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.

   Myanmar's diverse population has played a major role in defining its
   politics, history and demographics in modern times. Its political
   system remains under the tight control of the State Peace and
   Development Council, the military government led by Senior General Than
   Shwe since 1992. Part of the British Empire until 1948, Myanmar
   continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions and overcome coups
   d'état. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is
   based on a unique form of Buddhism intertwined with local elements.

Etymology

   The name "Myanmar" is derivative from the local short-form name Myanma
   Naingngandaw. . This name was used as early as the 12th century, but
   its etymology remains unclear. It is also the official name of the
   residents or citizens of Myanmar (written without the final "r" when
   used as an adjective, as in "the Myanma people"). "Bamar" is more
   specifically the official name of a person from the majority Burman
   ethnic group.

   In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of
   its name from Burma to Myanmar, along with changes to the English
   versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital
   city from Rangoon to Yangon. However, the official name of the country
   in the Burmese language, Myanmar, did not change, though this is often
   rendered in English as Myanma.

   The renaming proved to be politically controversial. Because the
   military junta was not legitimately elected, some governments have
   contended that it did not have the authority to officially change the
   name in English. This stance has also been adopted by most Burmese who
   oppose the military regime, but who do not necessarily dispute the
   semantics.

   The English-speaking world has been slow in accepting the name change;
   usage of Burma is still common. Burmese remains the most commonly used
   adjective. Major news organisations such as the BBC, Wall Street
   Journal, and The Financial Times as well as Western governments,
   including those of the United States and the United Kingdom, still
   officially refer to the country as Burma. CNN, The Economist, and The
   New York Times use "Myanmar" as the country name and "Burmese" as the
   adjective.

History

   Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, which was
   capital of the Pagan Kingdom.
   Enlarge
   Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, which was
   capital of the Pagan Kingdom.

   The Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the
   lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid 900s were dominant in southern
   Burma.

   The Pyu arrived in the 1st century BC and established several city
   kingdoms which traded with India and China. The most powerful Pyu
   kingdom was Sri Ksetra, which was subsequently abandoned in 656. The
   Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid 800s were invaded by the
   Nanzhao kingdom.

   The Burmans, or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from
   present-day Tibet sometime prior to the 800s. By 849, they had
   established a powerful kingdom centered on Pagan. During the reign of
   Anawratha (1044-1077), Burman influence expanded throughout much of
   present-day Myanmar. By the 1100s, large portions of continental
   Southeast Asia were controlled by the Pagan Kingdom, commonly called
   the First Burmese Empire. In the late 1200s, Mongols under Kublai Khan
   invaded the Pagan Kingdom, but by 1364 the Burmans re-established their
   kingdom at Ava, where Burmese culture entered a golden age. However, in
   1527, the Shan pillaged Ava. Meanwhile, the Mon re-established
   themselves at Pegu, which became a major commercial and religious
   centre.

   Burmans who had fled from Ava established the Toungoo Kingdom in 1531
   at Taungoo, under Tabinshwehti, who re-unified Burma and founded the
   Second Burmese Empire. Because of growing European influence in
   Southeast Asia, Toungoo Kingdom became a major trading centre.
   Bayinnaung expanded the empire by conquering the states of Manipur,
   Chiang Mai, and Ayutthaya. But internal rebellion and lack of resources
   to control the acquisitions led to the downfall of Toungoo Kingdom.
   Anaukpetlun, who had expelled Portuguese invaders, founded a new
   dynasty at Ava in 1613. Internal rebellion by the Mon aided by France,
   led to the kingdom's downfall in 1752.
   A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda reveals early British
   penetration in Burma during the First Anglo-Burmese War.
   Enlarge
   A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda reveals early British
   penetration in Burma during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

   Alaungpaya established the Konbaung Dynasty and founded the Third
   Burmese Empire in the 1700s. In 1767, King Hsinbyushin conquered
   Ayutthaya kingdom which resulted in Thai culture greatly enriching that
   of the Burmans. The Qing Dynasty of China, fearful of growing Burman
   power, invaded four times from 1766 to 1769 without success. Later
   monarchs lost control of Ayutthaya, but acquired Arakan and Tenasserim.

   During the reign of King Bagyidaw, in 1824, Mahabandoola captured
   Assam, adjacent to British territory in India, prompting war. The First
   Anglo-Burmese War was concluded by a peace treaty in Yandabo, in
   Central Myanmar, in 1826. The coastal territories of Rakhine (Arakan)
   and Tanintharyi. In 1851, King Tharawaddy imprisoned some British
   officials after border skirmishes, which the British used as the
   pretext for the Second Anglo-Burmese War. This time, the British
   annexed the remaining coastal provinces - Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago.
   In 1885, Burmese tax collectors, acting for the King, found out that
   the Bombay-Burma Teak Company had been illegally logging teak and
   hiding them in hope of evading tax. The King, Thibaw Min, slapped a
   fine on the company, which was seen by the British as a opportunity to
   annex the rest of Burma. In November 1885, the Third Anglo-Burmese War
   was waged, for a period of only two weeks. Thibaw Min and the Royal
   family were detained and exiled to Madras, and finally Ratnagiri. Burma
   became a province of British India by late November 1885, and was given
   as a New Year present to Queen Victoria on 1st January, 1886. On 1
   April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory,
   independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in
   India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace,
   and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after
   independence. In the 1940s, the Thirty Comrades, led by Aung San,
   founded the Burma Independence Army The Thirty Comrades received
   training in Japan.

   During World War II Burma became a major front in the Southeast Asian
   Theatre. Initially the Japanese-led Burma Campaign succeeded and the
   British were expelled from most of Burma, but the Allies retaliated. By
   July 1945 they had retaken the country. The Burmese fought for both
   sides in the war. Although many Burmese fought initially for the
   Japanese, some Burmese also served in the British Burma Army in
   1941-1942. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in
   the border districts of Burma still under British control. The Burma
   Rifles fought as part of the Chindits under General Orde Wingate from
   1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created American-Kachin
   Rangers which also fought for the Allies. Many other Burmese fought
   with the British Special Operations Executive. The Burma Independence
   Army under the command of Aung San and the Arakan National Army fought
   with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but rose up against the Japanese in
   1945.

   In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of
   Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals
   assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948,
   the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma,
   with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime
   Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become
   a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed,
   consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities. The
   geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the
   Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of
   Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been
   administered separately by the British.

   In 1961 U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United
   Nations and former Secetary to the Prime Minister, was elected
   Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner
   to head any international organization and would serve as UN
   Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN
   when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi.

   Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'état led by
   General Ne Win, who ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies
   under the Burmese Way to Socialism. In 1974, the funeral of U Thant led
   to bloody anti-government protests.

   In 1988, the 8888 Uprising pushed the country to the brink of
   revolution. In response, General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état. He
   formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989,
   martial law was declared after widespread protests. Plans for People's
   Assembly elections were finalised on 31 May 1989.

   In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30
   years. The NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 409 out of a total
   489 seats, but the election results were voided by SLORC, which refused
   to step down. SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the English language in
   1989. Led by Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made
   cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC
   unveiled plans to create a new constitution through the National
   Convention, which began 9 January 1993. In 1997, the State Law and
   Order Restoration Council was renamed the State Peace and Development
   Council (SPDC).

   On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast
   Asian Nations. The National Convention continues to convene and
   adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the National League
   for Democracy, have been excluded, and little progress has been made.
   On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national
   capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana, officially named it
   Naypyidaw, meaning "seat of kings". In September of 2006, The U.S. led
   effort to include Burma on the United Nations Security Council Agenda
   finally passed allowing the U.N.S.C. to discuss officially how it will
   deal with the human rights situation in Burma. In November of 2006, the
   International Labor Organization announced it will be seeking charges
   against Myanmar over the continous forced labor of it's citizens by the
   military at the International Court of Justice .

          List of capitals of Myanmar

          + Pagan 1044-1287
          + Sagaing 1315-1364, 1760-1764
          + Ava 1364-1750, 1764-1782
          + Shwebo 1750-1753
          + Rangoon (Yangon) 1753-1760, 1937-2006
          + Amarapura 1782-1823, 1841-1857
          + Mingun 1857-1861
          + Mandalay 1861-1886
          + Naypyidaw from 19 Feb 2006

Politics

   The Union of Myanmar is a military regime. Elected delegates in the
   1990 People's Assembly election formed the National Coalition
   Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB), a government-in-exile in
   December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy in Myanmar. Sein
   Win, a first cousin of Aung San Suu Kyi, is the NCGUB's current prime
   minister. However, NCGUB has very few powers and has been outlawed in
   Myanmar. The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe, who
   holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development
   Council." He holds all key powers, including the power to remove
   ministers and cabinet members, and makes major decisions in
   international politics. Khin Nyunt was prime minister until 19 October
   2004, during which he was replaced by General Soe Win, who has close
   ties to Than Shwe. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held
   by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health,
   the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of
   National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by
   civilians.

   Major political parties in Myanmar are the National League for
   Democracy and the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, although
   their activities are heavily regulated by the regime. Many other
   parties, often representing the interests of ethnic minorities do
   exist. There is little tolerance for political opposition, and many
   parties have been outlawed. The National Unity Party represents the
   military, and is supported by a mass organisation named the Union
   Solidarity and Development Association. According to several
   organisations, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International,
   the regime has a poor human rights record. There is no independent
   judiciary in Myanmar and political opposition to the military
   government is not tolerated. Internet access is highly restricted
   through software-based filtering that limits the material citizens can
   access on-line, including most political opposition and pro-democracy
   web pages. Forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour are
   common, and political dissent is not tolerated.

   In 1988, the Burmese army violently repressed protests against economic
   mismanagement and political oppression. On 8 August 1988, the military
   opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as 8888 Uprising.
   However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly
   elections. The election results were subsequently invalidated by the
   regime. The National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, won
   over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990
   election, the first held in 30 years. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned
   international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule
   in Myanmar, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She has been
   repeatedly placed under house arrest. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi
   Annan to Than Shwe and pressure by ASEAN, the Burmese military junta
   extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006
   under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the
   right to detain any persons de jure. The junta faces increasing
   international isolation. Myanmar's situation was referred to the UN
   Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal
   consultation. In September 2006, 10 of the United Nations Security
   Council’s 15 members voted to place Burma on the council's formal
   agenda.

   ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Myanmar's government. It has
   formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack
   of democratisation in Myanmar. Dramatic change in the country's
   political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major
   regional powers, in particular China.

Foreign relations and military

   Myanmar's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have
   been strained. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Myanmar
   because of the military crackdown in 1988 and because of the military
   regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's
   Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes
   on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences,
   and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. U.S.
   and European government sanctions against the military government,
   coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by
   western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in
   the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies.
   However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the
   sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to
   continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments,
   particularly in natural resource extraction. The French oil company
   Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from
   Burma to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on Myanmar.
   Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian
   courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to
   construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses
   along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and
   its American partner Chevron with aid and implementation by the
   Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar
   human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. There
   remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led
   sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the
   military rulers.

   Myanmar's armed forces is known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000.
   The Tatmadaw comprises the Armed Forces, the Navy, and the Air Force.
   Myanmar is ranked twelvth in the world in its number of active troops.
   The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and
   ministry posts held by military officers. Although official figures for
   Burmese military spending are not available, the Stockholm
   International Peace Research Institute, in its annual rankings, ranked
   Myanmar in the top 15 military spenders in the world.

Administrative divisions

   The 14 states and divisions of Myanmar.
   Enlarge
   The 14 states and divisions of Myanmar.

   Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions. Divisions (
   Image:Tain.png ) are predominantly Bamar. States ( Image:Pyinè.png ),
   in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic
   minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into
   townships, wards, and villages. Major cities are divided into districts
   called townships.

Divisions

     * Ayeyarwady Division
     * Bago Division
     * Magway Division
     * Mandalay Division
     * Sagaing Division
     * Tanintharyi Division
     * Yangon Division

States

     * Chin State
     * Kachin State
     * Kayin State
     * Kayah State
     * Mon State
     * Rakhine State
     * Shan State

Geography

   Myanmar, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970
   sq mi), is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia, and the
   40th-largest in the world (after Zambia). It is somewhat smaller than
   the US state of Texas and slightly larger than Afghanistan.

   Myanmar is located between Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and Assam,
   Nagaland and Manipur of India to the northwest. It shares its longest
   borders with Tibet and Yunnan of China to the northeast for a total of
   2,185 km (1,358 mi). Myanmar is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the
   southeast. Myanmar has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) contiguous coastline along
   the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which
   forms one-third of its total perimeter.
   The Ayeyarwady delta, which is approximately 50,400 km² in area, is
   largely used for rice cultivation.
   Enlarge
   The Ayeyarwady delta, which is approximately 50,400 km² in area, is
   largely used for rice cultivation.

   In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China.
   Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 m
   (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar. Three mountain ranges,
   namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist
   within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.The
   mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the
   Ayeyarwady,

   Thanlwin, and the Sittang rivers. The Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar's
   longest river, nearly 2,170 km (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of
   Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain
   chains. The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Ayeyarwady
   valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan
   Plateau.

   Much of Myanmar lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator.
   Myanmar lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions
   receiving over 5,000 mm (197 in) annually. Annual rainfall in the delta
   region is approximately 2,500 mm (98 in), while average annual rainfall
   in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Myanmar, is less than
   1,000 mm (39 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with
   average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have
   mean temperatures of 32 °C (90 °F).

   Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of
   much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense
   tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of
   the country. Other trees indigenous to the region include rubber,
   acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, coconut, betel palm. In the
   highlands of the north, oak, pine, and various rhododendrons cover much
   of the land. The lands along the coast support all varieties of
   tropical fruits. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is much more sparse and
   stunted.

   Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards are common in
   Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild buffaloes, wild
   boars, deer antelopes and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in
   captivity, for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber
   industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous ranging from gibbons and
   monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable
   with over 800 species, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows,
   herons, and paddybirds. Among reptile species there are crocodiles,
   geckos, cobras, pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater
   fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.

Economy

   The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major
   foreign investment.
   Enlarge
   The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major
   foreign investment.

   Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from
   decades of stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation. Myanmar’s GDP
   grows only 2.9% annually -- the lowest rate of economic growth in the
   Greater Mekong Subregion .

   After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U
   Nu attempted to make Burma a welfare state. His administration adopted
   the Two-Year Economic Development Plan, which was a failure. The 1962
   coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way
   to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception
   of agriculture. In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralising
   economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the
   economy. Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily
   regulated. They have recently been exploited by foreign corporations
   which have partnered with the government to gain access to Myanmar's
   natural resources.
   Goods in urban areas are often transported by coolies, as seen in
   Yangon's Chinatown.
   Enlarge
   Goods in urban areas are often transported by coolies, as seen in
   Yangon's Chinatown.

   Myanmar was designated a least developed country in 1987. Since 1992,
   when Than Shwe became head of state, the government has encouraged
   tourism. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country
   annually. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by
   the Tatmadaw. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to
   strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations,
   including the United States, Canada, and the European Union, have
   imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment
   comes primarily from China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and
   Thailand.

   Under British administration, Burma was one of the wealthiest countries
   in Southeast Asia. It was once the world's largest exporter of rice.
   During British adminstration, Burma supplied oil through the Burmah Oil
   Company. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It
   produced 75% of the world's teak, and had a highly literate population.
   The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.

   Today, Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily
   across the Burmese-Thai border, whence most illegal drugs are exported,
   and along the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with
   few repairs since their construction in the 1800s. Highways are
   normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are
   common throughout the country including in Yangon. Myanmar is also the
   world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire
   world production and is a major source of narcotics, including
   amphetamines. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles,
   wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural
   gas.

   The major agricultural good is rice which covers about 60% of the
   country’s total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total
   food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the
   International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties
   were released in Myanmar between 1966 and 1997, helping increase
   national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million
   tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the
   country’s ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas .

   The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology
   contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.

Demographics

   A block of flats in downtown Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market. Much of
   Yangon's urban population resides in densely-populated flats.
   Enlarge
   A block of flats in downtown Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market. Much of
   Yangon's urban population resides in densely-populated flats.

   Myanmar has a population of about 40 to 55 million. Current population
   figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted
   by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the
   military junta, was taken in 1983. No trustworthy nationwide census has
   been taken in Myanmar since the 1930s. There are over 600,000
   registered migrant workers from Myanmar in Thailand, and millions more
   work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's
   migrant workers. Myanmar has a population density of 75 persons per
   km², one of the lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along
   Indian-Burmese, Bangladeshi-Burmese and Burmese-Thai borders while
   several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that
   there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being
   Rohingya, Kayin, and Karenni.
   A girl from the Padaung minority, one of the many ethnic groups that
   make up Myanmar's population.
   Enlarge
   A girl from the Padaung minority, one of the many ethnic groups that
   make up Myanmar's population.

   Myanmar is ethnically diverse. Although the government recognises 135
   distinct ethnic groups, the actual number is much lower. The Bamar form
   an estimated 68% of the population. 10% of the population are Shan. The
   Kayin make up 7% of the population. The Rakhine people constitute 4% of
   the population. Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the
   population. Mon, who form 2% of the population, are
   ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer. Overseas Indians comprise 2%
   The remainder are Kachin, Chin, Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indians and other
   ethnic minorities.

   Myanmar is home to 4 major linguistic families: Sino-Tibetan,
   Austronesian, Tai-Kadai, and Indo-European. Sino-Tibetan languages are
   most widely spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and
   Chinese. The primary Tai-Kadai language is Shan. Mon is the major
   Austroasiatic language spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European
   languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and
   English.

   According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official
   literacy rate as of 2000 was 89.9%. Historically, Myanmar has had high
   literacy rates. To qualify for least developed country status by the UN
   in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy
   rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987. However, the U.S. Department of State
   estimates that functional literacy is at 30%.

   Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly of the Theravada sect intermingled
   with local beliefs. According to the military government, it is
   practised by 89% of the population, especially among the Bamar,
   Rakhine, Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Christianity is practised by 4% of the
   population, primarily among the Kachin, Chin and Kayin, and Eurasians
   because of missionary work in their respective areas. Most Christians
   are Protestants, in particular Baptists of the Myanmar Baptist
   Convention. Catholicism is practised by the remaining 1%. 4% of the
   population practises Islam, mainly of the Sunni sect. Muslims are
   divided amongst Indians, Indo-Burmese, Persians, Arabs, Panthays, and
   Rohingyas. The Muslim and Christian populations are socially
   marginalised and are widely segregated. Small segments of the
   population practise Hinduism.

Culture

   An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in Mandalay is one of
   the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture.
   Enlarge
   An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in Mandalay is one of
   the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture.

   Although a diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the
   majority culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has
   been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is
   manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The
   arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the
   Burmese form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of
   Myanmar, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of Ramayana, has been
   influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.
   Buddhism is practised along with nat worship which involves elaborate
   rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.

   In a traditional Burmese village, the monastery is the centre of
   cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A
   novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age
   events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of
   time.Every boys of Buddhist family need to be a novice (beginner for
   Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of
   twenty. It is compulsory for every boys of Buddhism. The duration can
   be at least one week. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (
   Image:Nathwin.gif ) at the same time. Burmese culture is most evident
   in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the
   most important being the pagoda festival. Many villages have a guardian
   nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.

   British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to
   Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of the
   United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in
   major cities such as Yangon. Many ethnic minorities, particularly the
   Karen in the southeast, and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north
   and northwest, practice Christianity.
   Members of the Buddhist monkhood are venerated throughout Myanmar,
   which is one of the most predominantly Theravada Buddhist countries in
   the world.
   Enlarge
   Members of the Buddhist monkhood are venerated throughout Myanmar,
   which is one of the most predominantly Theravada Buddhist countries in
   the world.

Language

   Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of
   Myanmar, is linguistically related to Tibetan and to the Chinese
   languages. It is written in a script consisting of circular and
   semi-circular letters, which comes from the Mon script. The Burmese
   alphabet adapted the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a
   southern Indian script in the 700s. The earliest known inscriptions in
   the Burmese script date from the 1000s. The script is also used to
   write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism. The Burmese
   script is also used to write several ethnic minority languages,
   including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the
   addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language.
   The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is
   age-oriented. Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance
   of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in
   monasteries. Secondary and tertiary education take place at government
   schools.

Cuisine

   Burmese cuisine has been influenced by Indian, Chinese, Thai, and other
   ethnic cuisines. The staple of Burmese cuisine is rice. Noodles and
   breads are also eaten. Burmese cuisine often utilises shrimp, and fish,
   fermented fish paste, pork and mutton. Beef, which is considered taboo
   meat, is rarely eaten. Curries, such as masala and chilli are also
   used. Mohinga, widely considered Myanmar's national dish, consists of
   curried catfish broth with chickpea flower, rice vermicelli and fish
   sauce. Tropical fruits are often served as desserts. Major cities offer
   a wider variety of cuisines, including Shan, Chinese, and Indian.

Music

   Traditional Burmese music is melodious but without harmony. Musical
   instruments include a drum circle called pat waing, a gong circle
   called kyi waing, a bamboo xylophone called pattala, cymbals, wind
   instruments such as the hnè or oboe and flute, bamboo clappers, and
   string instruments, which are often assembled in an orchestra called
   saing waing. The saung gauk, a boat-shaped string instrument consisting
   of silk strings and mica glass decorated along its neck has long been
   associated with the Burmese culture. Since the 1950s, westernised music
   has gained popularity, especially in large cities.

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