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Music

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Musical genres, styles,
eras and events

   Music is a form of art and entertainment or other human activity that
   involves organized and audible sounds and silence. It is expressed in
   terms of pitch (which includes melody and harmony), rhythm (which
   includes tempo and meter), and the quality of sound (which includes
   timbre, articulation, dynamics, and texture). Music also involves
   complex generative forms in time through the construction of patterns
   and combinations of natural stimuli, principally sound. Music may be
   used for artistic or aesthetic, communicative, entertainment, or
   ceremonial purposes. The definition of what constitutes music varies
   according to culture and social context.

   If painting can be viewed as a visual art form, music can be viewed as
   an auditory art form.
   Allegory of Music, by Filippino Lippi
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   Allegory of Music, by Filippino Lippi
   Allegory of Music, by Lorenzo Lippi
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   Allegory of Music, by Lorenzo Lippi

Definition

   The broadest definition of music is organized sound that is pleasing to
   the average ear. There are observable patterns to what is broadly
   labeled music, and while there are understandable cultural variations,
   the properties of music are the properties of sound as perceived and
   processed by humans. In essence, music is a personal response to
   mechanical vibration.

   Music is harmonious sound created by the playing of instruments or use
   of vocals as a whole or individually. It is a direct expression of
   human emotions designed to manipulate and transform the emotion of the
   listener/listeners. Music is designed to be felt unlike sound which is
   heard.

   Greek philosophers and medieval theorists defined music as tones
   ordered horizontally as melodies, and vertically as harmonies. Music
   theory, within this realm, is studied with the pre-supposition that
   music is orderly and often pleasant to hear. However, in the 20th
   century, composers challenged the notion that music had to be pleasant
   by creating music that explored harsher, darker timbres. The existence
   of some modern-day genres such as grindcore and noise music, which
   enjoy an extensive underground following, indicate that even the
   crudest noises can be considered music if the listener is so inclined.

   20th century composer John Cage disagreed with the notion that music
   must consist of pleasant, discernible melodies. Instead, he argued that
   any sounds we can hear can be music, saying, for example, "There is no
   noise, only sound," . According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez
   (1990 p.47-8,55): "The border between music and noise is always
   culturally defined--which implies that, even within a single society,
   this border does not always pass through the same place; in short,
   there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and
   intercultural universal concept defining what music might be."

   The composer Anton Webern stated "With me, things never turn out as I
   wish, but only as is ordained for means—I must", which sets out his
   view of the underlying generative process of music. Johann Wolfgang
   Goethe believed that patterns and forms were the basis of music; he
   stated that "architecture is frozen music."

History

   The history of music predates the written word and is tied to the
   development of each unique human culture. Although the earliest records
   of musical expression are to be found in the Sama Veda of India and in
   4,000 year old cuneiform from Ur, most of our written records and
   studies deal with the history of music in Western civilization. This
   includes musical periods such as medieval, renaissance, baroque,
   classical, romantic, and 20th century era music. The history of music
   in other cultures has also been documented to some degree, and the
   knowledge of " world music" (or the field of " ethnomusicology") has
   become more and more sought after in academic circles. This includes
   the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the
   influence of western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of
   various other cultures. (The term world music has been applied to a
   wide range of music made outside of Europe and European influence,
   although its initial application, in the context of the World Music
   Program at Wesleyan University, was as a term including all possible
   music genres, including European traditions. In academic circles, the
   original term for the study of world music, "comparative musicology",
   was replaced in the middle of the twentieth century by
   "ethnomusicology", which is still considered an unsatisfactory coinage
   by some.)

   Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from
   period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments,
   or techniques, or uses for music. Music has been used not only for
   entertainment, for ceremonies, and for practical & artistic
   communication, but also extensively for propaganda.

   As world cultures have come into greater contact, their indigenous
   musical styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the
   United States bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish,
   Scottish, Irish, German and some African-American instrumental and
   vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the US' multi-ethnic
   "melting pot" society.

   There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up
   in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of
   these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and
   popular music (or commercial music - including rock and roll, country
   music, and pop music). Some genres don't fit neatly into one of these
   "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz
   music).

   Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as
   by the actual music. While most classical music is acoustic and meant
   to be performed by individuals or groups, many works described as
   "classical" include samples or tape, or are mechanical. Some works,
   like Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and
   classical music. Many current music festivals celebrate a particular
   musical genre.

   There is often disagreement over what constitutes "real" music:
   late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores,
   serialism, bebop-era Jazz, rap, punk rock, and electronica have all
   been considered non-music by some critics when they were first
   introduced.

Aspects

   The traditional or classical European aspects of music often listed are
   those elements given primacy in European-influenced classical music:
   melody, harmony, rhythm, tone colour or timbre, and form. A more
   comprehensive list is given by stating the aspects of sound: pitch,
   timbre, loudness, and duration. These aspects combine to create
   secondary aspects including structure, texture and style. Other
   commonly included aspects include the spatial location or the movement
   in space of sounds, gesture, and dance. Silence has long been
   considered an aspect of music, ranging from the dramatic pauses in
   Romantic-era symphonies to the avant-garde use of silence as an
   artistic statement in 20th century works such as John Cage's 4'33."John
   Cage considers duration the primary aspect of music because it is the
   only aspect common to both "sound" and "silence."

   As mentioned above, not only do the aspects included as music vary,
   their importance varies. For instance, melody and harmony are often
   considered to be given more importance in classical music at the
   expense of rhythm and timbre. It is often debated whether there are
   aspects of music that are universal. The debate often hinges on
   definitions. For instance, the fairly common assertion that "tonality"
   is universal to all music requires an expansive definition of tonality.

   A pulse is sometimes taken as a universal, yet there exist solo vocal
   and instrumental genres with free, improvisational rhythms with no
   regular pulse; one example is the alap section of a Hindustani music
   performance. According to Dane Harwood, "We must ask whether a
   cross-cultural musical universal is to be found in the music itself
   (either its structure or function) or the way in which music is made.
   By 'music-making,' I intend not only actual performance but also how
   music is heard, understood, even learned."

Production

   Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from
   aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an
   entertainment product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose
   and perform music for their own pleasure, and they do not attempt to
   derive their income from music. Professional musicians are employed by
   a range of institutions and organizations, including armed forces,
   churches and synagogues, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film
   production companies, and music schools. As well, professional
   musicians work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a
   variety of settings.

   Although amateur musicians differ from professional musicians in that
   amateur musicians have a non-musical source of income, there are often
   many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning
   amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In
   community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with
   professional musicians in a variety of ensembles and orchestras. In
   some rare cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of
   competence, and they are able to perform in professional performance
   settings.

   A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of
   a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being
   recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the
   broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live
   performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed (or
   broadcast).

Performance

   Chinese Naxi musicians
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   Chinese Naxi musicians

   Someone who performs, composes, or conducts music is a musician.
   Musicians perform music for a variety of reasons. Some artists express
   their feelings in music. Performing music is an enjoyable activity for
   amateur and professional musicians, and it is often done for the
   benefit of an audience, who is deriving some aesthetic, social,
   religious, or ceremonial value from the performance. Part of the
   motivation for professional performers is that they derive their income
   from making music. Not only is it an income derived motivation, music
   has become a part of life as well as society. Allowing one to be
   motivated through self intrinsic motivations as well, as a saying goes
   "for the love of music." As well, music is performed in the context of
   practicing, as a way of developing musical skills.

Solo and ensemble

   Many cultures include strong traditions of solo or soloistic
   performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western Art
   music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong
   traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of
   both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's
   enjoyment to highly planned and organized performance rituals such as
   the modern classical concert or religious processions.

   Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with no more than
   one of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than
   symphonic works. A performer is called a musician or singer, and they
   may be part of a musical ensemble such as a rock band or symphony
   orchestra.

Oral tradition and notation

   Musical notation
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   Musical notation

   Music is often preserved in memory and performance only, handed down
   orally, or aurally ("by ear"). When the composer of music is no longer
   known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different
   musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to
   make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to
   those which demand improvisation or modification to the music. In the
   Gambia, West Africa, the history of the country is passed aurally
   through song.

   When music is written down, it is generally notated so that there are
   instructions regarding what should be heard by listeners, and what the
   musician should do to perform the music. This is referred to as musical
   notation, and the study of how to read notation involves music theory,
   harmony, the study of performance practice, and in some cases an
   understanding of historical performance methods.

   Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art
   music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which
   include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are
   the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular
   music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead
   sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal
   piece), and structure of the music. Nonetheless, scores and parts are
   also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles
   such as jazz "big bands."

   In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music
   notated in tablature, which indicates the location of the notes to be
   played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass
   fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate
   music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument.

   Generally music which is to be performed is produced as sheet music. To
   perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the
   musical style and the performance practice that is associated with a
   piece of music or genre. The detail included explicitly in the music
   notation varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art
   music notation from the 17th through to the 19th century required
   performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about
   performing styles.

   For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo
   performers typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However,
   it was expected that performers would know how to add
   stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as trills and turns.

   In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general
   instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without
   describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected
   that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation,
   and pauses (among other devices) to obtain this "expressive"
   performance style.

   In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit, and
   used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how
   they should play or sing the piece. In popular music and jazz, music
   notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the
   melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are
   expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with
   specific genres and pieces.

   For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz tune may only indicate the
   melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz ensemble are
   expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding
   ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.

Improvisation, interpretation, composition

   Most cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical
   material, or composition, as held in western classical music. Even when
   music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a
   performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to
   perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed
   interpretation.

   In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is
   given to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic,
   harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the
   performer in a style of performing called free improvisation, which is
   material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being
   performed, not preconceived. According to the analysis of Georgiana
   Costescu, improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre
   conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen
   material (see precompositional). Composition does not always mean the
   use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual.

   Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create
   musical sounds, examples of this range from wind chimes, through
   computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements
   selected by chance is called Aleatoric music, and is often associated
   with John Cage and Witold Lutosławski.

Composition

   Musical composition is a term that describes the composition of a piece
   of music. Methods of composition vary widely, however in analyzing
   music all forms -- spontaneous, trained, or untrained -- are built from
   elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed for repeated
   performance or it can be improvised; composed on the spot. The music
   can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of musical
   notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has
   traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of
   Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad
   enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free
   jazz performers and African drummers.

   What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is
   singling out its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements
   can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A
   universal element of music is how sounds occur in time, which is
   referred to as the rhythm of a piece of music.

   When a piece appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to
   be in rubato time, an Italian expression that indicates that the tempo
   of the piece changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer.
   Even random placement of random sounds, which occurs in musical
   montage, occurs within some kind of time, and thus employs time as a
   musical element.

Reception and audition

   Concert in the Mozarteum, Salzburg
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   Concert in the Mozarteum, Salzburg

   The field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of
   music including how it is processed by listeners.

   Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings
   ranging from being alone to attending a large concert. Musical
   performances take different forms in different cultures and
   socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America, there is often a
   divide between what types of music are viewed as "high culture" and
   "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically include Western
   art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era
   symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in
   formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience
   sitting quietly in seats.

   On the other hand, other types of music such as jazz, blues, soul, and
   country are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where
   the audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by
   cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and
   "low" musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that
   separated out better quality, more advanced "art music" from the
   popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls.

   However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived
   divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this
   distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the
   different types of music. Rather, they argued that this distinction was
   based largely on the socioeconomic standing or social class of the
   performers or audience of the different types of music.

   For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts
   typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a hip-hop
   concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even
   though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is
   performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is
   performed, such as blues, hip-hop, punk, funk, or ska may be very
   complex and sophisticated.

   Deaf people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their
   body, a process which can be enhanced if the individual holds a
   resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer
   Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even after he had
   completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include
   Evelyn Glennie, a highly acclaimed percussionist who has been deaf
   since the age of twelve, and Chris Buck, a virtuoso violinist who has
   lost his hearing.

Education

   Professional musicians in some cultures and musical genres compose,
   perform, and improvise music with no formal training. Musical genres
   where professional musicians are typically self-taught or where they
   learn through informal mentoring and creative exchanges include blues,
   punk, and popular music genres such as rock and pop.

   Undergraduate university degrees in music, including the Bachelor of
   Music, the Bachelor of Music Education, and the Bachelor of Arts with a
   major in music typically take three to five years to complete. These
   degrees provide students with a grounding in music theory and music
   history, and many students also study an instrument or learn singing
   technique as part of their program.

   Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in
   music graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the Master of Music,
   the Master of Arts, the PhD, and more recently, the Doctor of Musical
   Arts, or DMA. The Master of Music degree, which takes one to two years
   to complete, is typically awarded to students studying the performance
   of an instrument, education,voice or composition. The Master of Arts
   degree, which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a
   thesis, is typically awarded to students studying musicology, music
   history, or music theory.

   The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as university
   professors in musicology, music history, or music theory, takes three
   to five years of study after the Master's degree, during which time the
   student will complete advanced courses and undertake research for a
   dissertation. The Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA is a relatively new
   degree that was created to provide a credential for professional
   performers or composers that want to work as university professors in
   musical performance or composition. The DMA takes three to five years
   after a Master's degree, and includes advanced courses, projects, and
   performances.

Music as Part of General Education

   The incorporation of music training from preschool to postsecondary
   education is common in North America and Europe, because involvement in
   music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting,
   listening, and cooperation while also promoting understanding of
   language, improving the ability to recall information, and creating an
   environment more conductive to learning in other areas. In elementary
   schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder,
   sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music.
   In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some
   type of musical ensembles, such as choirs, marching bands, jazz bands,
   or orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be
   available.

   At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs
   can receive credit for taking music courses, which typically take the
   form of an overview course on the history of music, or a music
   appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning
   about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and
   European universities have some type of musical ensembles that
   non-music students are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching
   bands, or orchestras.

   The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North
   America and Europe, such as STSI in Bali, or the Classical music
   programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea,
   Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges
   are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures,
   such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music).

   Both amateur and professional musicians typically take music lessons,
   short private sessions with an individual teacher. Amateur musicians
   typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to
   intermediate-level musical techniques.

Study

   Many people also study about music in the field of musicology. The
   earliest definitions of musicology defined three sub-disciplines:
   systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative
   musicology. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to
   encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music
   history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been
   enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of
   psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-western cultures, and the
   cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology.

   In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the Quadrivium of the
   seven Liberal Arts and considered vital to higher learning. Within the
   quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more accurately harmonics, was the
   study of rational proportions.

   Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the
   musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George
   Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's
   Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of
   "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Ruwet's Language, musique,
   poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that birdsongs
   are organized according to a repetition-transformation principle. In
   the opinion of Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), "in the last analysis, it
   is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the
   sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not
   organized and conceptualized (that is, made to form music) merely by
   its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely
   human."

   Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical
   manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any
   study of music, usually related in some form with compositional
   concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What
   is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are
   guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period, or
   tonal music. Theory, even that which studies music of the common
   practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the
   application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to
   atonal music. Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music
   theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials,
   for example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.

Use in therapy

   Robert Burton wrote in the 16th century in his classic work, The
   Anatomy of Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating
   mental illness, especially melancholia.

   In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues again
   found that Music therapy helped the outcomes of Schizophrenic patients.
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