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Minoan civilization

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology

   This article is part of the series on:

   History of Greece
   Prehistory of Greece
   Cycladic Civilization
   Minoan Civilization
   Mycenaean Civilization
   Greek Dark Ages
   Ancient Greece
   Ancient Greece
   Hellenistic Greece
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   Medieval Greece
   Byzantine Empire
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   The Minoans ( Greek: Μινωίτες) were a civilization in Crete in the
   Aegean Sea. Ceramic items created during the Neolithic period in Crete
   date to 7000 BC and the height of the Minoan culture flourished from
   approximately 2700 to 1450 BC when their culture was superseded by the
   Mycenaean culture. The Minoans were one of the civilizations that
   flourished in and around the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age of
   Greece. These civilizations had much contact with each other, sometimes
   making it difficult to judge the extent to which the Minoans
   influenced, or were influenced by, their neighbors. Based on depictions
   in Minoan art, Minoan culture is often characterized as a matrilineal
   society centered on goddess worship.

   The term "Minoan" was coined by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur
   Evans after the mythic "king" Minos associated with the labyrinth,
   which Evans identified as the site at Knossos. It is not known whether
   "Minos" was a personal name or a title. What the Minoans called
   themselves is unknown, although the Egyptian place name "Keftiu"
   (*kaftāw) and the Semitic "Kaftor" or " Caphtor" and "Kaptara" in the
   Mari archives apparently refers to the island of Crete.

   Much later, the Odyssey calls the non-Greek speaking natives of Crete
   Eteocretans meaning, 'true Cretans'.

Chronology and history

   Rather than give calendar dates for the Minoan period, archaeologists
   use two systems of relative chronology. The first, created by Evans and
   modified by later archaeologists, is based on pottery styles. It
   divides the Minoan period into three main eras—Early Minoan (EM),
   Middle Minoan (MM), and Late Minoan (LM). These eras are further
   subdivided, e.g. Early Minoan I, II, III (EMI, EMII, EMIII). Another
   dating system, proposed by the Greek archaeologist Nicolas Platon, is
   based on the development of the architectural complexes known as
   "palaces" at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Kato Zakros, and divides the
   Minoan period into Prepalatial, Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and
   Post-palatial periods. The relationship among these systems is given in
   the accompanying table, with approximate calendar dates drawn from
   Warren and Hankey (1989).

   All calendar dates given in this article are approximate, and the
   subject of ongoing debate.

   The Thera eruption occurred during a mature phase of the LM IA period.
   The calendar date of the volcanic eruption is extremely controversial;
   see the article on Thera eruption for discussion. It often is
   identified as a catastrophic natural event for the culture, leading to
   its rapid collapse, perhaps being related mythically as Atlantis by
   Classical Greeks.

History

                                                        Minoan chronology
                   3650-3000 BC       EMI                      Prepalatial
                   2900-2300 BC      EMII
                   2300-2160 BC     EMIII
                   2160-1900 BC      MMIA
                   1900-1800 BC      MMIB                    Protopalatial
                                                       (Old Palace Period)
                   1800-1700 BC      MMII
                   1700-1640 BC    MMIIIA                      Neopalatial
                                                       (New Palace Period)
                   1640-1600 BC    MMIIIB
                   1600-1480 BC      LMIA
                   1480-1425 BC      LMIB
                   1425-1390 BC      LMII                     Postpalatial
                                         (At Knossos, Final Palace Period)
                   1390-1370 BC   LMIIIA1
                   1370-1340 BC   LMIIIA2
                   1340-1190 BC    LMIIIB
                   1190-1170 BC    LMIIIC
                        1100 BC Subminoan

   The oldest signs of inhabitants on Crete are ceramic Neolithic remains
   that date to approximately 7000 BC. See History of Crete for details.

   The beginning of its Bronze Age, around 2600 BC, was a period of great
   unrest in Crete, and also marks the beginning of Crete as an important
   centre of civilization.

   At the end of the MMII period (1700 BC) there was a large disturbance
   in Crete, probably an earthquake, or possibly an invasion from
   Anatolia. The Palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Kato Zakros were
   destroyed. But with the start of the Neopalatial period, population
   increased again, the palaces were rebuilt on a larger scale and new
   settlements were built all over the island. This period (the
   seventeenth and sixteenth centuries BC, MM III / Neopalatial)
   represents the apex of the Minoan civilization. The Thera eruption
   occurred during LMIA (and LHI).

   On the Greek mainland, LHIIB began during LMIB, showing independence
   from Minoan influence. At the end of the LMIB period, the Minoan palace
   culture failed catastrophically. All palaces were destroyed, and only
   Knossos was immediately restored - although other palaces sprang up
   later in LMIIIA (like Chania).

   LMIB ware has been found in Egypt under the reigns of Hatshepsut and
   Tuthmosis III. Either the LMIB/LMII catastrophe occurred after this
   time, or else it was so bad that the Egyptians then had to import LHIIB
   instead.

   A short time after the LMIB/LMII catastrophe, around 1420 BC, the
   island was conquered by the Mycenaeans, who adapted Linear A Minoan
   script as Linear B for their Mycenaean language, a form of Greek. The
   first such archive anywhere is in the LMII-era "Room of the Chariot
   Tablets". Later Cretan archives date to LMIIIA (contemporary with
   LHIIIA) but no later than that.

   During LMIIIA:1, Amenhotep III at Kom el-Hatan took note of k-f-t-w
   (Kaftor) as one of the "Secret Lands of the North of Asia". Also
   mentioned are Cretan cities such as i-'m-n-y-s3/i-m-ni-s3 (Amnisos),
   b3-y-s3-?-y (Phaistos), k3-t-w-n3-y (Kydonia) and k3-in-yw-s (Knossos)
   and some toponyms reconstructed as Cyclades and Greek. If the values of
   these Egyptian names are accurate, then this pharaoh did not privilege
   LMIII Knossos above the other states in the region.

   After about a century of partial recovery, most Cretan cities and
   palaces went into decline in the thirteenth century BC (LHIIIB; we
   should not speak of an independent "LMIIIB").

   Knossos remained an administrative centre until 1200 BC; the last of
   the Minoan sites was the defensive mountain site of Karfi.

Geography

   Map of Minoan Crete
   Map of Minoan Crete

   Crete is a mountainous island with natural harbors. There are signs of
   earthquake damage at Minoan sites.

   Homer recorded a tradition that Crete had ninety cities. The site at
   Knossos was the most important one. Archeologists have found palaces in
   Phaistos and Malia as well. The island was probably divided into four
   political units, the north being governed from Knossos, the south from
   Phaistos, the central eastern part from Malia, and the eastern tip from
   Kato Zakros. Smaller palaces have been found in other places.

   Some of the major Minoan archaeological sites are:
     * Palaces
          + Knossos - the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete;
            was purchased for excavations by Evans on March 16, 1900.
          + Phaistos
          + Malia
          + Kato Zakros
          + Galatas
     * Agia Triada
     * Gournia - town
     * Pyrgos
     * Vasiliki
     * Fournu Korfi
     * Pseira - island town with ritual sites
     * Mount Juktas - the greatest of the Minoan peak sanctuaries
     * Arkalochori
     * Karfi - last of the Minoan sites

Society and culture

   Minoan copper ingot
   Minoan copper ingot

   The Minoans were primarily a mercantile people engaged in overseas
   trade. Their culture, from ca 1700 BC onward, shows a high degree of
   organization.

   Many historians and archaeologists believe that the Minoans were
   involved in the Bronze Age's important tin trade: tin, alloyed with
   copper apparently from Cyprus, was used to make bronze. The decline of
   Minoan civilization and the decline in use of bronze tools in favour of
   superior iron ones seem to be correlated.

   The Minoan trade in saffron, which originated in the Aegean basin as a
   natural chromosome mutation, has left fewer material remains: a fresco
   of saffron-gatherers at Santorini is well-known. This inherited trade
   pre-dated Minoan civilization: a sense of its rewards may be gained by
   comparing its value to frankincense, or later, to pepper.
   Archaeologists tend to emphasize the more durable items of trade:
   ceramics, copper, and tin, and dramatic luxury finds of gold and
   silver.

   Objects of Minoan manufacture suggest there was a network of trade with
   mainland Greece (notably Mycenae), Cyprus, Syria, Anatolia, Egypt,
   Mesopotamia, and westward as far as the coast of Spain.
   Fresco showing three women
   Fresco showing three women

   Minoan men wore loincloths and kilts. Women wore robes that were open
   to the navel, leaving their breasts exposed, and had short sleeves and
   layered flounced skirts. Women also had the option of wearing a
   strapless fitted bodice, the first fitted garments known in history.
   The patterns on clothes emphasized symmetrical geometric designs.

   The statues of priestesses in Minoan culture and frescoes showing men
   and women participating in the same sports such as bull-leaping, lead
   some archaeologists to believe that men and women held equal social
   status. Inheritance is thought to have been matrilineal. Minoan
   religion was goddess worship and women are represented as those
   officiating at religious ceremonies. The frescos include many
   depictions of people, with the genders distinguished by colour: the
   men's skin is reddish-brown, the women's white.

Language and writing

   Unknown syllabic signs on the Phaistos Disc
   Unknown syllabic signs on the Phaistos Disc

   Knowledge of the spoken and written language of the Minoans is scant,
   despite the number of records found. Sometimes the Minoan language is
   referred to as Eteocretan, but this presents confusion between the
   language written in Linear A scripts and the language written in a
   Euboean-derived alphabet only after the Greek Dark Ages. While
   Eteocretan language is suspected to be a descendant of Minoan, there is
   no substantial evidence for this. It also is unknown whether the
   language written in Cretan hieroglyphs is Minoan. It is undeciphered
   and its phonetic values are unknown.

   Approximately 3,000 tablets bearing writing have been discovered so
   far, many apparently being inventories of goods or resources and others
   inscriptions on religious objects associated with cult. Because most of
   these inscriptions are concise economic records rather than dedicatory
   inscriptions, the translation of Minoan remains a challenge. The
   hieroglyphs came into use from MMI and were in parallel use with the
   emerging Linear A from the eighteenth century BC (MM II) and
   disappeared at some point during the seventeenth century BC (MM III).

   In the Mycenean period, Linear A was replaced by Linear B, recording a
   very archaic version of the Greek language. Linear B was successfully
   deciphered by Michael Ventris in the 1950s, but the earlier scripts
   remain a mystery. Unless Eteocretan truly is its descendant, it is
   perhaps during the Greek Dark Ages, a time of economic and
   socio-political collapse, that the Minoan language became extinct.

Art

   A fresco found at the Minoan site of Knossos, indicating a sport or
   ritual of "bull leaping", the dark skinned figure is a man and the two
   light skinned figures are women
   A fresco found at the Minoan site of Knossos, indicating a sport or
   ritual of "bull leaping", the dark skinned figure is a man and the two
   light skinned figures are women

   The great collection of Minoan art is in the museum at Heraklion, near
   Knossos on the north shore of Crete. Minoan art, with other remains of
   material culture, especially the sequence of ceramic styles, has
   allowed archaeologists to define the three phases of Minoan culture
   (EM, MM, LM) discussed above.

   Since wood and textiles have vanished through decomposition, the most
   important surviving examples of Minoan art are Minoan pottery, the
   palace architecture with its frescos that include landscapes, stone
   carvings, and intricately carved seal stones.

   In the Early Minoan period ceramics were characterised by linear
   patterns of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, fishbone motifs,
   and such. In the Middle Minoan period naturalistic designs such as
   fish, squid, birds, and lilies were common. In the Late Minoan period,
   flowers and animals were still the most characteristic, but the
   variability had increased. The 'palace style' of the region around
   Knossos is characterised by a strong geometric simplification of
   naturalistic shapes and monochromatic paintings. Very noteworthy are
   the similarities between Late Minoan and Mycenaean art.

Religion

   "Snake Goddess" or a priestess performing a ritual (MM III)
   " Snake Goddess" or a priestess performing a ritual (MM III)

   The Minoans worshiped goddesses. Although there is some evidence of
   male gods, depictions of Minoan goddesses vastly outnumber depictions
   of anything that could be considered a Minoan god. While some of these
   depictions of women are believed to be images of worshipers and
   priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies, as opposed to the
   deity herself, there still seem to be several goddesses including a
   Mother Goddess of fertility, a Mistress of the Animals, a protectress
   of cities, the household, the harvest, and the underworld, and more.
   Some have argued that these are all aspects of a single goddess. They
   are often represented by serpents, birds, poppies, and a somewhat vague
   shape of an animal upon the head. Some suggest the goddess was linked
   to the "Earthshaker", a male represented by the bull and the sun, who
   would die each autumn and be reborn each spring. Though the notorious
   bull-headed Minotaur is a purely Greek depiction, seals and
   seal-impressions reveal bird-headed or masked deities.

   Walter Burkert warns:

          "To what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan
          and Mycenaean religion is a question which has not yet found a
          conclusive answer"

   and suggests that useful parallels will be found in the relations
   between Etruscan and Archaic Greek culture and religion, or between
   Roman and Hellenistic culture. Minoan religion has not been transmitted
   in its own language, and the uses literate Greeks later made of
   surviving Cretan mythemes, after centuries of purely oral transmission,
   have transformed the meager sources: consider the Athenian
   point-of-view of the Theseus legend. A few Cretan names are preserved
   in Greek mythology, but there is no way to connect a name with an
   existing Minoan icon, such as the familiar serpent-goddess. Retrieval
   of metal and clay votive figures— double axes, miniature vessels,
   models of artifacts, animals, human figures—has identified sites of
   cult: here were numerous small shrines in Minoan Crete, and mountain
   peaks and very numerous sacred caves—over 300 have been explored—were
   the centers for some cult, but temples as the Greeks developed them
   were unknown. Within the palace complex, no central rooms devoted to
   cult have been recognized, other than the centre court where youths of
   both sexes would practice the bull-leaping ritual. It is notable that
   there are no Minoan frescoes that depict any deities.

   Minoan sacred symbols include the bull and its horns of consecration,
   the labrys (double-headed axe), the pillar, the serpent, the sun-disk,
   and the tree.

Warfare and "The Minoan Peace"

   Children boxing in a fresco on the island of Santorini
   Children boxing in a fresco on the island of Santorini

   It is generally assumed there was little internal armed conflict on
   Minoan Crete. This condition is known as "Pax Minoica," or "The Minoan
   Peace." As with much of Minoan Crete, however, it is hard to draw any
   obvious conclusions from the evidence. One sometimes feels that the
   civilization is much like a Rorschach inkblot, in that interpretations
   often reflect more of the interpreter than the civilization itself.
   However, new excavations keep sustaining interests and documenting the
   impact around the Aegean

   Many argue that there is little evidence for ancient Minoan
   fortifications. But as S. Alexiou has pointed out (in Kretologia 8), a
   number of sites, especially Early and Middle Minoan sites such as Aghia
   Photia, are built on hilltops or are otherwise fortified. As Lucia
   Nixon said, "...we may have been over-influenced by the lack of what we
   might think of as solid fortifications to assess the archaeological
   evidence properly. As in so many other instances, we may not have been
   looking for evidence in the right places, and therefore we may not end
   with a correct assessment of the Minoans and their ability to avoid
   war." (“Changing Views of Minoan Society,” in Minoan Society ed L.
   Nixon).

   Chester Starr points out in "Minoan Flower Lovers" (Hagg-Marinatos eds.
   Minoan Thalassocracy) that Shang China and the Maya both had
   unfortified centers and yet still engaged in frontier struggles, so
   that itself cannot be enough to definitively show the Minoans were a
   peaceful civilization unparalleled in history.

   In 1998, however, when Minoan archaeologists met in a conference in
   Belgium to discuss the possibility that the idea of Pax Minoica was
   outdated, the evidence for Minoan war proved to be scanty.

   Archaeologist Jan Driessen, for example, said the Minoans frequently
   show ‘weapons’ in their art, but only in ritual contexts, and that “The
   construction of fortified sites is often assumed to reflect a threat of
   warfare, but such fortified centers were multifunctional; they were
   also often the embodiment or material expression of the central places
   of the territories at the same time as being monuments glorifying an
   merging leading power” (Driessen 1999, p. 16).

   On the other hand, Stella Chryssoulaki's work on the small outposts or
   'guard-houses' in the east of the island represent possible elements of
   a defensive system. Claims that they produced no weapons are erroneous;
   type A Minoan swords (as found in palaces of Mallia and Zarkos) were
   the finest in all of the Aegean (See Sanders, AJA 65, 67, Hoeckmann,
   JRGZM 27, or Rehak and Younger, AJA 102).

   Regarding Minoan weapons, however, archaeologist Keith Branigan notes
   that 95% of so-called Minoan weapons possessed hafting (hilts, handles)
   that would have prevented their use as weapons (Branigan, 1999).
   However more recent experimental testing of accurate replicas has shown
   this to be incorrect as these weapons were capable of cutting flesh
   down to the bone (and scoring the bone's surface) without any damage to
   the weapons themselves. Archaeologist Paul Rehak maintains that Minoan
   figure-eight shields could not have been used for fighting or even
   hunting, since they were too cumbersome (Rehak, 1999). And
   archaeologist Jan Driessen says the Minoans frequently show ‘weapons’
   in their art, but only in ritual contexts (Driessen 1999). Finally,
   archaeologist Cheryl Floyd concludes that Minoan “weapons” were merely
   tools used for mundane tasks such as meat-processing (Floyd, 1999).
   Although this interpretation must remain highly questionable as there
   are no parallels of one-meter-long swords and large spearheads being
   used as culinary devices in the historic or ethnographic record.

   About Minoan warfare in general, Branigan concludes that “[T]he
   quantity of weaponry, the impressive fortifications, and the aggressive
   looking long-boats all suggested an era of intensified hostilities. But
   on closer inspection there are grounds for thinking that all three key
   elements are bound up as much with status statements, display, and
   fashion as with aggression…. Warfare such as there was in the southern
   Aegean EBA [early Bronze Age] was either personalized and perhaps
   ritualized (in Crete) or small-scale, intermittent and essentially an
   economic activity (in the Cyclades and the Argolid/Attica)” (1999, p.
   92). Archaeologist Krzyszkowska concurs: “The stark fact is that for
   the prehistoric Aegean we have no [sic] direct evidence for war and
   warfare per se [sic]” (Krzyszkowska, 1999).

   Furthermore, no evidence exists for a Minoan army, or for Minoan
   domination of peoples outside Crete. Few signs of warfare appear in
   Minoan art. “Although a few archaeologists see war scenes in a few
   pieces of Minoan art, others interpret even these scenes as festivals,
   sacred dance, or sports events” (Studebaker, 2004, p. 27). Although
   armed warriors are depicted being stabbed in the throat with swords,
   violence may occur in the context of ritual or blood sport.

   Although on the Mainland of Greece at the time of the Shaft Graves at
   Mycenae, there is little evidence for major fortifications among the
   Mycenaeans there (the famous citadels post-date the destruction of
   almost all Neopalatial Cretan sites), the constant warmongering of
   other contemporaries of the ancient Minoans – the Egyptians and
   Hittites, for example – is well documented.

Possibility of human sacrifice

   Minoan symbolic labrys of gold, 2nd millennium BC: many have been found
   in the Arkalochori cave.
   Minoan symbolic labrys of gold, 2nd millennium BC: many have been found
   in the Arkalochori cave.

   Evidence that suggest the Minoans may have performed human sacrifice
   has been found at three sites: (1) Anemospilia, in a MMII building near
   Mt. Juktas, interpreted as a temple, (2) an EMII sanctuary complex at
   Fournou Korifi in south central Crete, and (3) Knossos, in an LMIB
   building known as the "North House."

   The temple at Anemospilia was destroyed by earthquake in the MMII
   period. The building seems to be a tripartite shrine, and terracotta
   feet and some carbonized wood were interpreted by the excavators as the
   remains of a cult statue. Four human skeletons were found in its ruins;
   one, belonging to a young man, was found in an unusually contracted
   position on a raised platform, suggesting that he had been trussed up
   for sacrifice, much like the bull in the sacrifice scene on the
   Mycenaean-era Agia Triadha sarcophagus. A bronze dagger was among his
   bones, and the discoloration of the bones on one side of his body
   suggests he died of blood loss. The bronze blade was fifteen inches
   long and had images of a boar on each side. The bones were on a raised
   platform at the centre of the middle room, next to a pillar with a
   trough at its base.

   The positions of the other three skeletons suggest that an earthquake
   caught them by surprise—the skeleton of a twenty-eight year old woman
   was spread-eagled on the ground in the same room as the sacrificed
   male. Next to the sacrificial platform was the skeleton of a man in his
   late thirties, with broken legs. His arms were raised, as if to protect
   himself from falling debris, which suggests that his legs were broken
   by the collapse of the building in the earthquake. In the front hall of
   the building was the fourth skeleton, too poorly preserved to allow
   determination of age or gender. Nearby 105 fragments of a clay vase
   were discovered, scattered in a pattern that suggests it had been
   dropped by the person in the front hall when s/he was struck by debris
   from the collapsing building. The jar had apparently contained bull's
   blood.

   Unfortunately, the excavators of this site have not published an
   official excavation report; the site is mainly known through a 1981
   article in National Geographic (Sakellarakis and Sapouna-Sakellerakis
   1981, see also Rutter).

   Not all agree that this was human sacrifice. Nanno Marinatos says the
   man supposedly sacrificed actually died in the earthquake that hit at
   the time he died. She notes that this earthquake destroyed the
   building, and also killed the two Minoans who supposedly sacrificed
   him. She also argues that the building was not a temple and that the
   evidence for sacrifice “is far from … conclusive." Dennis Hughes
   concurs and also argues that the platform where the man lay was not
   necessarily an altar, and the blade was probably a spearhead that may
   not have been placed on the young man, but could have fallen during the
   earthquake from shelves or an upper floor.

   At the sanctuary-complex of Fournou Korifi, fragments of a human skull
   were found in the same room as a small hearth, cooking-hole, and
   cooking-equipment. This skull has been interpreted as the remains of a
   sacrificed victim.

   In the "North House" at Knossos, the bones of at least four children
   (who had been in good health) were found which bore signs that "they
   were butchered in the same way the Minoans slaughtered their sheep and
   goats, suggesting that they had been sacrificed and eaten. The senior
   Cretan archaeologist Nicolas Platon was so horrified at this suggestion
   that he insisted the bones must be those of apes, not humans."

   The bones, found by Peter Warren, date to Late Minoan IB (1580-1490),
   before the Myceneans arrived (in LM IIIA, circa 1320-1200) according to
   Paul Rehak and John G. Younger. Dennis Hughes and Rodney Castleden
   argue that these bones were deposited as a 'secondary burial'..
   Secondary burial is the not-uncommon practice of burying the dead
   twice: immediately following death, and then again after the flesh is
   gone from the skeleton. The main weakness of this argument is that it
   does not explain the type of cuts and knife marks upon the bones.

Architecture

   The Minoan cities were connected with stone-paved roads, formed from
   blocks cut with bronze saws. Streets were drained and water and sewer
   facilities were available to the upper class, through clay pipes.

   Minoan buildings often had flat tiled roofs; plaster, wood, or
   flagstone floors, and stood two to three stories high. Typically the
   lower walls were constructed of stone and rubble, and the upper walls
   of mudbrick. Ceiling timbers held up the roofs.

Palaces

   Ruins of the palace at Knossos
   Ruins of the palace at Knossos

   The first palaces were constructed at the end of the Early Minoan
   period in the third millennium BC ( Malia). While it was formerly
   believed that the foundation of the first palaces was synchronous and
   dated to the Middle Minoan at around 2000 BC (the date of the first
   palace at Knossos), scholars now think that palaces were built over a
   longer period of time in different locations, in response to local
   developments. The main older palaces are Knossos, Malia, and Phaistos.

   The palaces fulfilled a plethora of functions: they served as centres
   of government, administrative offices, shrines, workshops, and storage
   spaces (e.g., for grain). These distinctions might have seemed
   artificial to Minoans.

   The use of the term 'palace' for the older palaces, meaning a dynastic
   residence and seat of power, has recently come under criticism (see
   Palace), and the term 'court building' has been proposed instead.
   However, the original term is probably too well entrenched to be
   replaced. Architectural features such as ashlar masonry, orthostats,
   columns, open courts, staircases (implying upper stories), and the
   presence of diverse basins have been used to define palatial
   architecture.

   Often the conventions of better-known, younger palaces have been used
   to reconstruct older ones, but this practice may be obscuring
   fundamental functional differences. Most older palaces had only one
   story and no representative facades. They were U-shaped, with a big
   central court, and generally were smaller than later palaces. Late
   palaces are characterised by multi-storey buildings. The west facades
   had sandstone ashlar masonry. Knossos is the best-known example. See
   Knossos.
   Fresco from the "Palace of Minos", Knossos, Crete
   Fresco from the "Palace of Minos", Knossos, Crete
   Storage jars in Knossos
   Storage jars in Knossos

Columns

   One of the most notable contributions of Minoans to architecture is
   their unique column, which was wider at the top than the bottom. It is
   called an 'inverted' column because most Greek columns are wider at the
   bottom, creating an illusion of greater height. The columns were also
   made of wood as opposed to stone, and were generally painted red. They
   were mounted on a simple stone base and were topped with a pillow-like,
   round piece as a capital.

Agriculture

   The Minoans raised cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats, and grew wheat,
   barley, vetch, and chickpeas, they also cultivated grapes, figs, and
   olives, and grew poppies, for poppyseed and perhaps, opium. The Minoans
   domesticated bees, and adopted pomegranates and quinces from the Near
   East, although not lemons and oranges as is often imagined. They
   developed Mediterranean polyculture, the practice of growing more than
   one crop at a time, and as a result of their more varied and healthy
   diet, the population increased.

   Farmers used wooden plows, bound by leather to wooden handles, and
   pulled by pairs of donkeys or oxen.

Theories of Minoan demise

Thera eruption

   Thera is the largest island of Santorini, a little archipelago of
   volcanic fragments about 100 km distant from Crete. The Thera eruption
   (estimated to have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 6) has been
   identified by ash fallout in eastern Crete, and in cores from the
   Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean seas. The massive eruption of Thera
   led to the volcano's collapse into a submarine caldera, causing
   tsunamis which destroyed naval installations and settlements near the
   coasts. The impact of the Thera eruption on the Minoan civilization is
   debated.

   Claims were made that the ash falling on the eastern half of Crete may
   have choked off plant life, causing starvation. It was alleged that
   7-11 cm of ash fell on Kato Zakro, while 0.5cm fell on Knossos.
   However, when field examinations were carried out, this theory was
   dropped, as no more than 5mm had fallen anywhere in Crete. (Callender,
   1999) Earlier historians and archaeologists appear to have been
   deceived by the depth of pumice found on the sea floor, however it has
   been established this oozed from a lateral crack in the volcano below
   sea level (Pichler & Friedrich, 1980).

   (The calendar date of the eruption is much disputed. Many
   archaeologists believe that synchronisms with Egypt require a date
   around 1500 BC; radiocarbon, however, puts the date in the late
   seventeenth century BC. See Thera eruption for details.)

   Occasionally the eruption is tied to the legend of Atlantis, with
   either Thera or Minoan as the fabled place. See Atlantis.

   Recent geological studies of the volume of pummice deposited around the
   island of Santorini, suggest that the volcanic eruption of 1450 BCE was
   far more catastrophic than previously thought. Some suggest the
   eruption was at least eight times as large as that of Krakatoa.

Other

   There is evidence that the trade networks collapsed, and that Minoan
   cities perished by famine. The Minoans' grain supply is believed to
   have come from farms on the shore of the Black Sea.

   Many scholars believe that ancient trading empires were in constant
   danger from uneconomic trade, that is, food and staple goods were
   improperly valued relative to luxury goods, because accounting was
   undeveloped. The result could be famine and decline in population.

   One theory of Minoan collapse is that increasing use of iron tools
   destroyed the bronze trade and impoverished the Minoan traders. When
   the trade networks ceased, regional famines could no longer be
   mitigated by trade.

   Another possibility lies Northwest on the mainland where the Mycenaean
   civilization was flourishing. Many historians believe they conquered
   the Minoans in a relatively easy fashion since there were no walls
   protecting the people of Crete because they believed their fleet could
   protect them. If the Mycenaeans managed to land ashore then they would
   have faced little resistance (Quigley 1961).
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