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Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)

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   Malwa
    Malwa (highlighted) as per 1823 dipiction of India by Fielding Lucas
                                    Jr..
   Largest city Indore
   22.42° N 75.54° E
   Main languages Malvi, Hindi
   Area 81,767 km²
   Population (2001) 18,889,000
   Density 231/km²
   Birth rate (2001) 31.6
   Death rate (2001) 10.3
   Infant mortality rate (2001) 93.8

   Malwa ( Malvi:माळवा) is a region in western India occupying a plateau
   of volcanic origin in the western part of Madhya Pradesh state. This
   region had been a separate political unit from the time of the Aryan
   tribe of Malavas until 1947, when the British Malwa Agency was merged
   into Madhya Bharat. Although political borders have fluctuated
   throughout history, the region has developed its own distinct culture
   and language. The plateau that forms a large part of the region is
   named the Malwa Plateau, after the region. The average elevation of the
   Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards
   the north. Most of the region is drained by the Chambal River and its
   tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the
   Mahi River. Ujjain was the political, economic, and cultural capital of
   the region in ancient times, and Indore is presently the largest city
   and commercial centre. Overall, agriculture is the main occupation of
   the people of Malwa. The region has been one of the important producers
   of opium in the world. Cotton and soybeans are other important cash
   crops, and textiles are a major industry.

   The region includes the Madhya Pradesh districts of Dewas, Dhar,
   Indore, Jhabua, Mandsaur, Neemuch, Rajgarh, Ratlam, Shajapur, Ujjain,
   and parts of Guna and Sehore, and the Rajasthan districts of Jhalawar
   and parts of Banswara and Chittorgarh. Politically and
   administratively, the definition of Malwa is sometimes extended to
   include the Nimar region south of the Vindhyas. Geologically, the Malwa
   Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland south of the Vindhyas,
   which includes the Malwa region and extends east to include the upper
   basin of the Betwa and the headwaters of the Dhasan and Ken rivers. The
   region has a tropical climate with dry deciduous forests that are home
   to a number of tribes, most important of them being the Bhils. The
   culture of the region has had influences from Gujarati, Rajasthani and
   Marathi cultures. Malvi is the most commonly used language, especially
   in rural areas, while Hindi is widely understood in cities. Major
   places of tourist interest include Ujjain, Mandu, Maheshwar and Indore.

   The first significant kingdom in the region was Avanti, an important
   power in western India by around 500 BC, when it was annexed by the
   Maurya Empire. The 5th-century Gupta period was a golden age in the
   history of Malwa. The dynasties of the Parmaras, the Malwa sultans, and
   the Marathas have ruled Malwa at various times. The region has given
   the world prominent leaders in the arts and sciences, including the
   poet and dramatist Kalidasa, the author Bhartrihari, the mathematicians
   and astronomers Varahamihira and Brahmagupta, and the polymath king
   Bhoj.

History

   Coin showing Karttikeya and Lakshmi (Ujjain, circa 150–75 BC)
   Enlarge
   Coin showing Karttikeya and Lakshmi (Ujjain, circa 150–75 BC)

   The name Malwa is derived from the ancient Aryan tribe of Malavas,
   about whom very little is known apart from the fact that they founded
   the Vikrama Samvat; this is a calendar dating from 57 BC that is widely
   used in India and that is popularly associated with the king
   Chandragupta Vikramaditya. The name Malava is derived from the Sanskrit
   term Malav, and means “part of the abode of Lakshmi”. The location of
   the Malwa or Moholo, mentioned by the 7th century Chinese traveller
   Xuanzang, is plausibly identified with present-day Gujarat. The region
   is cited as Malibah in Arabic records, such as Kamilu-t Tawarikh by Ibn
   Asir.

   Ujjain, also known historically as Ujjaiyini and Avanti, emerged as the
   first major centre in the Malwa region during India's second wave of
   urbanisation in the 7th century BC (the first wave was the Indus Valley
   Civilization). Around 600 BC an earthen rampart was built around
   Ujjain, enclosing a city of considerable size. Avanti was one of the
   prominent mahajanapadas of the Indo-Aryans. In the post-Mahabharata
   period—around 500 BC—Avanti was an important kingdom in western India;
   it was ruled by the Haihayas, a people who were possibly of mixed
   Indo-Aryan and aboriginal descent, who were responsible for the
   destruction of Naga power in western India. The region was conquered by
   the Maurya empire in the mid-4th century BC. Ashoka, who was later a
   Mauryan emperor, was governor of Ujjain in his youth. After the death
   of Ashoka in 232 BC, the Maurya Empire began to collapse. Although
   evidence is sparse, Malwa was probably ruled by the Kushanas and the
   Shakas during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Ownership of the region was
   the subject of dispute between the Western Kshatrapas and the
   Satavahanas during the first three centuries AD. Ujjain emerged a major
   trading centre during the 1st century AD.
   Rani Rupmati Pavilion at Mandu, built by Miyan Bayezid Baz Bahadur
   (1555–62) Enlarge
   Rani Rupmati Pavilion at Mandu, built by Miyan Bayezid Baz Bahadur
   (1555–62)

   Malwa became part of the Gupta Empire during the reign of Chandragupta
   II (375–413), also known as Vikramaditya, who conquered the region,
   driving out the Western Kshatrapas. The Gupta period is widely regarded
   as a golden age in the history of Malwa, when Ujjain served as the
   empire's western capital. Kalidasa, Aryabhata and Varahamihira were all
   based in Ujjain, which emerged as a major centre of learning,
   especially in astronomy and mathematics. Around 500, Malwa re-emerged
   from the dissolving Gupta empire as a separate kingdom; in 528,
   Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Hunas, who had invaded India from the
   north-west. During the seventh century, the region became part of
   Harsha's empire, and he disputed the region with the Chalukya king
   Pulakesin II of Badami in the Deccan. In 786 the region was captured by
   the Rashtrakuta kings of the Deccan, and was disputed between the
   Rashtrakutas and the Pratihara kings of Kannauj until the early part of
   the tenth century. From the mid-tenth century, Malwa was ruled by the
   Paramara clan of Rajputs, who established a capital at Dhar. King Bhoj,
   who ruled from about 1010 to 1060, was known as the great polymath
   philosopher-king of medieval India; his extensive writings cover
   philosophy, poetry, medicine, veterinary science, phonetics, yoga, and
   archery. Under his rule Malwa became an intellectual centre of India.
   Bhoj also founded the city of Bhopal to secure the eastern part of his
   kingdom. His successors ruled until about 1200, when Malwa was
   conquered by the Delhi Sultanate.

   Dilawar Khan, previously Malwa's governor under the rule of the Delhi
   sultanate, declared himself sultan of Malwa in 1401 after the Mongol
   conqueror Timur attacked Delhi, causing the break-up of the sultanate
   into smaller states. Khan started the Malwa Sultanate and established a
   capital at Mandu, high in the Vindhya Range overlooking the Narmada
   River valley. His son and successor, Hoshang Shah (1405–35),
   embellished Mandu. Hoshang Shah's son, Ghazni Khan, ruled for only a
   year and was succeeded by Sultan Mahmud Khalji (1436–69), the first of
   the Khalji sultans of Malwa, who expanded the state to include parts of
   Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Deccan. The Muslim sultans invited the
   Rajputs to settle in the country. In the early 16th century, the sultan
   sought the aid of the sultans of Gujarat to counter the growing power
   of the Rajputs, while the Rajputs sought the support of the Sesodia
   Rajput kings of Mewar. Gujarat stormed Mandu in 1518 and 1531, and
   shortly thereafter, the Malwa sultanate collapsed. The Mughal emperor
   Akbar captured Malwa in 1562 and made it a province of his empire.
   Mandu was abandoned by the 17th century.
   Sculpture of a Holkar courtier from Fort Ahilya
   Enlarge
   Sculpture of a Holkar courtier from Fort Ahilya

   As the Mughal state weakened after 1700, the Marathas raided Malwa.
   Malhar Rao Holkar (1694–1766) became leader of Maratha armies in Malwa
   in 1724, and in 1733 the Maratha Peshwa granted him control of most of
   the region, which was formally ceded by the Mughals in 1738. Another
   Maratha general, Anand Rao Panwar, established himself as the raja of
   Dhar in 1742, and the two Panwar brothers became rajas of Dewas. At the
   end of the 18th century, Malwa became the venue of fighting between the
   rival Maratha powers and the headquarters of the Pindaris, who were
   irregular plunderers. The Pindaris were rooted out in a campaign by the
   British general Lord Hastings, and further order was established under
   Sir John Malcolm. The Holkar dynasty ruled Malwa from Indore and
   Maheshwar on the Narmada until 1818, when the Marathas were defeated by
   the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the Holkars of Indore
   became a princely state of the British Raj. After 1818 the British
   organised the numerous princely states of central India into the
   Central India Agency; the Malwa Agency was a division of Central India,
   with an area of 23,100 km² (8,919 square miles) and a population of
   1,054,753 in 1901. It comprised the states of Dewas (senior and junior
   branch), Jaora, Ratlam, Sitamau and Sailana, together with a large part
   of Gwalior, parts of Indore and Tonk, and about 35 small estates and
   holdings. Political power was exercised from Neemuch. Upon Indian
   independence in 1947, the Holkars and other princely rulers acceded to
   India, and most of Malwa became part of the new state of Madhya Bharat,
   which was merged into Madhya Pradesh in 1956.

   See also: Rulers of Malwa, History of India

Geography

   Malwa and neighbourhood according to the historical map of India by
   Fielding Lucas Jr. (1823).
   Enlarge
   Malwa and neighbourhood according to the historical map of India by
   Fielding Lucas Jr. (1823).

   The Malwa region occupies a plateau in western Madhya Pradesh and
   south-eastern Rajasthan (between 21°10′N 73°45′E and 25°10′N 79°14′E),
   with Gujarat in the west. To the south and east is the Vindhya Range
   and to the north is the Bundelkhand upland. The plateau is an extension
   of the Deccan Traps, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago at the
   end of the Cretaceous period. In this region the main classes of soil
   are black, brown and bhatori (stony) soil. The volcanic, clay-like soil
   of the region owes its black colour to the high iron content of the
   basalt from which it formed. The soil requires less irrigation because
   of its high capacity for moisture retention. The other two soil types
   are lighter and have a higher proportion of sand.

   The average elevation of the plateau is 500 m. Some of the peaks over
   800 m high are at Sigar (881 m), Janapav (854 m) and Ghajari (810 m).
   The plateau generally slopes towards the north. The western part of the
   region is drained by the Mahi River, while the Chambal River drains the
   central part, and the Betwa River and the headwaters of the Dhasan and
   Ken rivers drain the east. The Shipra River is of historical importance
   because of the Simhasth mela, held every 12 years. Other notable rivers
   are Parbati, Gambhir and Choti Kali Sindh. Malwa's elevation gives it a
   mild, pleasant climate; a cool morning wind, the karaman, and an
   evening breeze, the Shab-e-Malwa, make the summers less harsh.
   The Vindhya Range marks the southern boundary of the plateau, and is
   the source of many rivers of the region.
   Enlarge
   The Vindhya Range marks the southern boundary of the plateau, and is
   the source of many rivers of the region.

   The year is popularly divided into three seasons: summer, the rains,
   and winter. Summers extends over the months of Chaitra to Jyestha
   (mid-March to mid-May). The average daily temperature during the summer
   months is 35 °C, which typically rises to around 40 °C on a few days.
   The rainy season starts with the first showers of Aashaadha (mid-June)
   and extends to the middle of Ashvin (September). Most of the rain falls
   during the southwest monsoon spell, and ranges from about 100 cm in the
   west to about 165 cm in the east. Indore and the immediately
   surrounding areas receive an average of 140 cm of rainfall a year. The
   growing period lasts from 90 to 150 days, during which the average
   daily temperature is below 30 °C, but seldom falls below 20 °C. Winter
   is the longest of the three seasons, extending for about five months
   (mid- Ashvin to Phalgun, i.e., October to mid-March). The average daily
   temperature ranges from 15 °C to 20 °C, though on some nights it can
   fall as low as 7 °C. Some cultivators believe that an occasional winter
   shower during the months of Pausha and Maagha—known as Mawta—is helpful
   to the early summer wheat and germ crops.
   The Sambhar is one of the most common wild animals found in the region.
   Enlarge
   The Sambhar is one of the most common wild animals found in the region.

   The region is part of the Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests
   ecoregion.

   Vegetation: The natural vegetation is tropical dry forest, with
   scattered teak (Tectona grandis) forests. The main trees are Butea,
   Bombax, Anogeissus, Acacia, Buchanania and Boswellia. The shrubs or
   small trees include species of Grewia, Ziziphus mauritiana, Casearia,
   Prosopis, Capparis, Woodfordia, Phyllanthus, and Carissa.

   Wildlife: Sambhar (Cervus unicolor), Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra),
   and Chinkara (Gazella bennettii) are some common ungulates. During the
   last century, deforestation has happened at a fast rate, leading to
   environmental problems such as acute water scarcity and the danger that
   the region is being desertified.

   See also: Geography of India

Demographics

   A girl from the Gadia Lohars nomadic tribe of Marwar, cooking on the
   outskirts of a village in Ratlam district
   Enlarge
   A girl from the Gadia Lohars nomadic tribe of Marwar, cooking on the
   outskirts of a village in Ratlam district

   The population of the Malwa region was about 18.9 million in 2001, with
   a population density of a moderate 231/km². The annual birth rate in
   the region was 31.6 per 1000, and the death rate 10.3. The infant
   mortality rate was 93.8, slightly higher than the overall rate for the
   Madhya Pradesh state. There are numerous tribes in the region, such as
   the Bhils—and their allied groups, the Bhilalas, Barelas and
   Patelias—and the Meenas, who all differ to a remarkable degree from the
   regional population in their dialects and social life. They encompass a
   variety of languages and cultures. Some tribes of the region, notably
   the Kanjars, were notified in the 19th century for their criminal
   activities, but have since then been denotified. A nomadic tribe from
   the Marwar region of Rajasthan, the Gadia Lohars—who work as lohars
   (blacksmiths)—visit the region at the start of the agricultural season
   to repair and sell agricultural tools and implements, stopping
   temporarily on the outskirts of villages and towns and residing in
   their ornate metal carts. The Kalbelias are another nomadic tribe from
   Rajasthan that regularly visits the region.

   Malwa has a significant number of Dawoodi Bohras, a subsect of Shia
   Muslims from Gujarat, who are mostly businessmen by profession. Besides
   speaking the local languages, the Bohras have their own language, Lisan
   al-Dawat. The Patidars, who probably originated from the Kurmis of
   Punjab, are mostly rural farmers who settled in Gujarat around 1400.
   Periods of sultanate and Maratha rule led to the growth of sizeable
   Muslim and Marathi communities. A significant number of Jats and
   Rajputs also live in the region. The Sindhis, who settled in the region
   after the partition of India, are an important part of the business
   community. Like neighbouring Gujarat and southern Rajasthan, the region
   has a significant number of Jains, who are mostly traders and business
   people. The region is home to smaller numbers of Parsis or
   Zoroastrians, Goan Catholics, Anglo-Indians, and Punjabis. The Parsis
   are intimately connected with the growth and evolution of Mhow, which
   has a Parsi fire temple and a Tower of Silence.

Economy

   Children in an opium field in Malwa
   Enlarge
   Children in an opium field in Malwa

   The region is one of the world's major opium producers. It was this
   crop that resulted in close connections between the economies of Malwa,
   the western Indian ports and China, bringing international capital to
   the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. Malwa opium was a challenge
   to the monopoly of the East India Company, which was supplying Bengal
   opium to China. This led the British company to impose many
   restrictions on the production and trade of the drug; eventually, opium
   trading was pushed underground. When smuggling became rife, the British
   eased the restrictions. Today, the region is still one of the largest
   producers of legal opium in the world. There is a central,
   government-owned opium and alkaloid factory in the city of Neemuch.
   Nevertheless, there is a still a significant amount of illicit opium
   production, which is channelled into the black market. The headquarters
   of India's Central Bureau of Narcotics is in Mandsaur.

   The region is predominantly agricultural. The black, volcanic soil is
   ideal for the cultivation of cotton, and textile manufacture is an
   important industry. Large centres of textile production include Indore,
   Ujjain and Nagda. Maheshwar is known for its fine Maheshwari saris, and
   Mandsaur for its coarse woollen blankets. Handicrafts are an important
   source of income for the tribal population. Coloured lacquerware from
   Ratlam, rag dolls from Indore, and papier-mâché articles from Indore,
   Ujjain and several other centres are well known. The brown soil in
   parts of the region is particularly suitable for the cultivation of
   such unalu (early summer) crops as wheat, gram ( Cicer arietinum) and
   til ( Sesamum indicum). Relatively poor soil is used for the
   cultivation of syalu such (early winter) crops as millet (Andropogon
   sorghum), maize (Zea mays), mung bean ( Vigna radiata), urad (Vigna
   mungo), batla ( Pisum sativum) and peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Overall,
   the main crops are jowar, rice, wheat, coarse millet, peanuts and
   pulses, soya bean, cotton, linseed, sesame and sugarcane. Sugar mills
   are located in numerous small towns. Mandsaur district is the sole
   producer in India of white- and red-coloured slate, used in the
   district's 110 slate pencil factories. There is a cement factory in .
   Apart from this, the region lacks mineral resources. The region's
   industries mainly produce consumer goods—but there are now many centres
   of large- and medium-scale industries, including Indore, Nagda, and
   Ujjain. Indore has a large-scale factory that produces diesel engines.
   Pithampur, an industrial town 25 km from Indore, is known as the
   Detroit of India for its heavy concentration of automotive industry.
   Indore is recognised as the commercial capital of Madhya Pradesh, and
   is the main centre for trade in textiles and agro-based products. It
   has one of the six Indian Institutes of Management.

Culture

   A Maratha-styled sculpture from Maheshwar
   Enlarge
   A Maratha-styled sculpture from Maheshwar

   The culture of Malwa has been significantly influenced by Gujarati and
   Rajasthani culture, because of their geographic proximity. Marathi
   influence is also visible, because Malwa was the recent rule by the
   Marathas. The main language of Malwa is Malvi, although Hindi is widely
   spoken in the cities. This Indo-European language is subclassified as
   Indo-Aryan. The language is sometimes referred to as Malavi or Ujjaini.
   Malvi is part of the Rajasthani branch of languages; Nimadi is spoken
   in the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh and in Rajasthan. The dialects of
   Malvi are, in alphabetical order, Bachadi, Bhoyari, Dholewari,
   Hoshangabadi, Jamral, Katiyai, Malvi Proper, Patvi, Rangari, Rangri and
   Sondwari. A survey in 2001 found only four dialects: Ujjaini (in the
   districts of Ujjain, Indore, Dewas and Sehore), Rajawari (Ratlam,
   Mandsaur and Neemuch), Umadwari (Rajgarh) and Sondhwari (Jhalawar, in
   Rajasthan). About 55% of the population of Malwa can converse in and
   about 40% of the population is literate in Hindi, the official language
   of the Madhya Pradesh state.

   Traditional Malwa food has elements of both Gujarati and Rajasthani
   cuisine. Traditionally, jowar was the staple cereal, but after the
   green revolution in India, wheat has replaced jowar as the most
   important food crop; many are vegetarians. Since the climate is mostly
   dry throughout the year, most people rely on stored foods such as
   pulses, and green vegetables are rare. A typical snack of Malwa is the
   bhutta ri kees (made with grated corn roasted in ghee and later cooked
   in milk with spices). Chakki ri shaak is made of wheat dough, which is
   washed under running water, steamed and then used in a gravy of curd.
   The traditional bread of Malwa is called baati/bafla, which is
   essentially a small, round ball of wheat flour, roasted over dung
   cakes, in the traditional way. Baati is typically eaten with dal
   (pulses), while baflas are dripping with ghee and soaked with dal. The
   amli ri kadhi is kadhi made with tamarind instead of yogurt. Sweet
   cakes, made of a variety of wheat called tapu, are prepared during
   religious festivities. Sweet cereal called thulli is also typically
   eaten with milk or yoghurt. Traditional desserts include mawa-bati
   (milk-based sweet similar to Gulab jamun), khoprapak (coconut-based
   sweet), shreekhand (yogurt based) and malpua.

   Lavani is a widely practised form of folk music in southern Malwa,
   which came through the Marathas. The Nirguni Lavani (philosophical) and
   the Shringari Lavani (erotic) are the two of the main genres. The Bhils
   have their own folk songs, which are always accompanied by dance. The
   folk musical modes of Malwa are of four or five notes, and in rare
   cases six. The devotional music of the Nirguni cult is popular
   throughout Malwa. Legends of Raja Bhoj and Bijori, the Kanjar girl, and
   the tale of Balabau are popular themes for folk songs. Insertions known
   as stobha are commonly used in Malwa music; this can occur in four
   ways: the matra stobha (syllable insertion), varna stobha (letter
   insertion), shabda stobha (word insertion) and vakya stobha (sentence
   insertion).
   Typical countryside near Mhow during the monsoon season
   Enlarge
   Typical countryside near Mhow during the monsoon season

   Malwa was the centre of Sanskrit literature during and after the Gupta
   period. The region's most famous playwright, Kalidasa, is considered to
   be the greatest Indian writer ever. His first surviving play is
   Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and Agnimitra). Kalidasa's second play, his
   masterpiece, is the Abhijñānaśākuntalam, which tells the story of king
   Dushyanta, who falls in love with a girl of lowly birth, the lovely
   Shakuntala. The last of Kalidasa's surviving plays is Vikramuurvashiiya
   ("Urvashi conquered by valour"). Kalidasa also wrote the epic poems
   Raghuvamsha ("Dynasty of Raghu"), Ritusamhāra and Kumarasambhava
   ("Birth of the war god"), as well as the lyric Meghaduuta ("The cloud
   messenger").

   Swang is a popular dance form in Malwa; its roots go back to the
   origins of the Indian theatre tradition in the first millennium BC.
   Since women did not participate in the dance-drama form, men enacted
   their roles. Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry,
   accompanied alternatately by song and dialogue. The genre is
   dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented.

   Mandana (literally painting) wall and floor paintings are the
   best-known painting traditions of Malwa. White drawings stand out in
   contrast to the base material consisting of a mixture of red clay and
   cow dung. Peacocks, cats, lions, goojari, bawari, the swastika and
   chowk are some motifs of this style. Sanjhya is a ritual wall painting
   done by young girls during the annual period when Hindus remember and
   offer ritual oblation to their ancestors. Malwa miniature paintings are
   well known for their intricate brushwork. In the 17th century, an
   offshoot of the Rajasthani school of miniature painting, known as Malwa
   painting, was centred largely in Malwa and Bundelkhand. The school has
   preserved the style of the earliest examples, such as the Rasikapriya
   series dated 1636 (after a poem analysing the love sentiment) and the
   Amaru Sataka (a 17th-century Sanskrit poem). The paintings from this
   school are flat compositions on black and chocolate-brown backgrounds,
   with figures shown against a solid colour patch, and architecture
   painted in vibrant colours.
   Women making offerings on the banks of the river Shipra, Ujjain
   Enlarge
   Women making offerings on the banks of the river Shipra, Ujjain

   The biggest festival of Malwa is the Simhastha mela, held every 12
   years, in which more than a million pilgrims take a holy dip in river
   Shipra. The festival of Gana-gour is celebrated in honour of Shiva and
   Parvati. The history of the festival goes back to Rano Bai, whose
   parental home was in Malwa, but who was married in Rajasthan. Rano Bai
   was strongly attached to Malwa, and did not want to stay in Rajasthan.
   After marriage, she was allowed to visit Malwa only once a year;
   Gana-gour symbolises these annual return visits. The festival is
   observed by the women in the region once in the month of Chaitra
   (mid-March) and Bhadra (mid-August). The Ghadlya (earthen pot) festival
   is celebrated by the girls of the region, who gather to visit every
   house in their village in the evenings, carrying earthen pots with
   holes for the light from oil lamps inside to escape. In front of every
   house, the girls recite songs connected with the Ghadlya and receive
   food or money in return. The Gordhan festival is celebrated on the 16th
   day in the month of Kartika. The Bhils of the region sing Heeda
   anectodal songs to the cattle, while the women sing the Chandrawali
   song, associated with Krishna's romance.<ref> Festivals of Madhya
   Pradesh</ref>

   The most popular fairs are held in the months of Phalguna, Chaitra,
   Bhadra, Ashvin and Kartik. The Chaitra fair, held at Biaora, and the
   Gal yatras, held at more than two dozen villages in Malwa are
   remarkable. Many fairs are held in the tenth day of the month of Bhadra
   to mark the birth of Tejaji. The Triveni mela is held at Ratlam, and
   other fairs take place in Kartika at Ujjain, Mandhata (Nimad),
   Nayagaon, among others. In the Belisarius series, by David Drake and
   Eric Flint, the people of Malwa are chosen by malicious beings from the
   future to change the course of history. The Byzantine general
   Belisarius is set against them by a creature sent by a benevolent group
   of future beings.

Tourism

   The main tourist destinations in Malwa are places of historical or
   religious significance. The river Shipra and the city of Ujjain have
   been regarded as sacred for thousands of years. The Mahakal Temple of
   Ujjain is one of the 12 jyotirlingas. Ujjain has over 100 other ancient
   temples, including Harsidhhi, Chintaman Ganesh, Gadh Kalika, Kaal
   Bhairava and Mangalnath. The Kalideh Palace, on the outskirts of the
   city, is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture. The Bhartrihari
   caves are associated with interesting legends. Since the fourth century
   BC, Ujjain has enjoyed the reputation of being India's Greenwich, as
   the first meridian of longitude of the Hindu geographers. The
   observatory built by Jai Singh II is one of the four such observatories
   in India and features ancient astronomical devices. The Simhastha mela,
   celebrated every 12 years, starts on the full moon day in Chaitra
   (April) and continues into Vaishakha (May) until the next full moon
   day.
   Mandu Valley
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   Mandu Valley

   Mandu was originally the fort capital of the Parmar rulers. Towards the
   end of the 13th century, it came under the sway of the Sultans of
   Malwa, the first of whom named it Shadiabad (city of joy). It remained
   as the capital, and in it the sultans built exquisite palaces like the
   Jahaz Mahal and Hindola Mahal, ornamental canals, baths and pavilions.
   The massive Jami Masjid and Hoshang Shah's tomb provided inspiration to
   the designers of the Taj Mahal centuries later. Baz Bahadur built a
   huge palace in Mandu in the 16th century. Other notible historical
   monuments are Rewa Kund, Rupmati's Pavillion, Nilkanth Mahal, Hathi
   Mahal, Darya Khan's Tomb, Dai ka Mahal, Malik Mughit's Mosque and Jali
   Mahal.
   Fort Ahilya in Maheshwar
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   Fort Ahilya in Maheshwar

   Close to Mandu is Maheshwar, a town on the northern bank of Narmada
   River that served as the capital of the Indore state under Rajmata
   Ahilya Devi Holkar. The Maratha rajwada (fort) is the main attraction.
   A life-size statue of Rani Ahilya sits on a throne within the fort
   complex. Dhar was the capital of Malwa before Mandu became the capital
   in 1405. There, the fort is in ruins but offers a panoramic view. The
   Bhojashala Mosque (built in 1400) is still used as a place of worship
   on Fridays. The abandoned Lat Masjid (1405) and the tomb of Kamal Maula
   (early 15th century), a Muslim saint, are other places of interest.

   Modern Indore was planned and built by Rajmata Ahilya Devi Holkar. The
   grand Lal Baag Palace is one of its grandest monuments. The Bada
   Ganpati temple houses what is possibly the largest Ganesh idol in the
   world, measuring 7.6 m from crown to foot. The Kanch Mandir is a Jain
   temple entirely inlaid with glass. The Town Hall was made in 1904 in
   indo-gothic style; originally named King Edward Hall, it was renamed
   Mahatma Gandhi Hall in 1948. The chhatris are the tombs or cenotaphs
   erected in memory of dead Holkar rulers and their family members.

   The shrine of Hussain Tekri, built by the Nawab of Jaora, Mohammad
   Iftikhar Ali Khan Bahadur, in the 19th century, is on the outskirts of
   Jaora in the Ratlam district. Mohammad Iftikhar Ali Khan Bahadur was
   buried in the same graveyard where Hussain Tekri was buried. During the
   month of Moharram, thousands of people from all over the world visit
   the shrine of Hazrat Imam Hussain there, which is a replica of the
   Iraqi original. The place is famous for the rituals called Hajri to
   cure mental illness.

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