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Makuria

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General history

   Christian Nubia in the three states period. Makuria would later absorb
   Nobatia. Note that the border between Alodia and Makuria is unclear,
   but it was somewhere between the 5th and 6th Cataracts of the Nile
   Enlarge
   Christian Nubia in the three states period. Makuria would later absorb
   Nobatia. Note that the border between Alodia and Makuria is unclear,
   but it was somewhere between the 5th and 6th Cataracts of the Nile

   Makuria (Arabic: مقرة; al-Mukurra or al-Muqurra) was a kingdom located
   in what is today Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. It was one of a
   group of Nubian kingdoms that emerged in the centuries after the fall
   of the Kushite Kingdom, which had dominated the region from
   approximately 800 BC to AD 350. Makuria originally covered the area
   along the Nile River from the Third Cataract to somewhere between the
   Fifth and Sixth Cataracts. It also had control over the trade routes,
   mines, and oases to the east and west. Its capital was Dongola (or
   Dunqulah), and the kingdom is sometimes known by the name of its
   capital.

   By the end of the 6th century it had converted to Christianity, but in
   the 7th century Egypt was conquered by the Islamic armies, and Nubia
   was cut off from the rest of Christendom. In 651 an Arab army invaded,
   but it was repulsed and a treaty known as the baqt was signed creating
   a relative peace between the two sides that lasted until the 13th
   century. Makuria expanded, annexing its northern neighbour Nobatia
   either at the time of the Arab invasion or during the reign of King
   Merkurios. The period from roughly 750 to 1150 saw the kingdom stable
   and prosperous, in what has been called the " Golden Age".^ Increased
   aggression from Egypt, and internal discord led to the state's collapse
   in the 14th century.

History

Origins

   The origins of Makuria are uncertain. Ptolemy mentions a Nubian people
   known as the Makkourae, who might be ancestors to the Makurians^ . The
   kingdom is believed to have formed in the 4th or 5th century. The first
   recorded mention of it is in a work by the 6th-century John of Ephesus,
   who decries its hostility to Monophysite missionaries traveling to
   Alodia. Soon after John of Biclarum wrote approvingly of Makuria's
   adoption of the rival Melkite faith.

   The most important event in Makurian history was the defeat of an Arab
   army in 652. The Arabs had taken Egypt in 641, and the jihad soon
   turned south. At the Battle of Dongola in 652 the Arabs were either
   defeated or stalemated by the Nubians. It is unclear how the Nubians
   achieved this feat, but Arab writers noted their skill with the bow.
   This was the only major defeat suffered by an Arab army in the first
   century of Islamic expansion, and it led to an unprecedented agreement,
   the bakt, which guaranteed peaceful relations between the two sides. In
   this treaty the Nubians agreed to send several hundred slaves each year
   to Egypt, while the Egyptians may have been obliged to send food and
   manufactured goods south.^

   At some point Makuria merged with Nobatia to the north.^ The evidence
   for when this occurred is contradictory. The Arab accounts of the
   invasion of 652 only make reference to a single state based at Dongola.
   The bakt, negotiated by the Makurian king, applied to all of Nubia
   north of Alodia. This has led some scholars to propose that the two
   kingdoms were unified during this turbulent period. However, a book
   written in 690 makes clear that Makuria and Nobatia were still two
   separate and rather hostile kingdoms. Clear evidence for union is
   provided by an inscription from the reign of King Merkurios at Taifa
   that makes clear that Nobatia was under Makurian control by the middle
   of the eighth century. Every source after this date has Nobatia under
   Makurian control. This leads many scholars to infer that the
   unification occurred during the reign of Merkurios, who was described
   as the "New Constantine" by John the Deacon^ .

   What this merged kingdom should be called is unclear in both
   contemporary sources and among modern historians. Makuria remained in
   use as a geographic term for the southern half of the kingdom, but it
   was also used to describe the kingdom in its entirety. Some writers
   refer to it simply as Nubia, ignoring that southern Nubia was still
   under the independent kingdom of Alodia. It is also sometimes called
   the Kingdom of Dongola, after the capital city. Another name, the
   Kingdom of Makuria and Nobatia, perhaps implies a dual monarchy. Dotawo
   could be another name, or it could refer to an entirely separate
   kingdom.^

Height

   Makuria seems to have been stable and prosperous during the eighth and
   ninth centuries. During this period Egypt was weakened by frequent
   civil wars, and there was thus little threat of invasion from the
   north. Instead it was the Nubians who intervened in the affairs of
   their neighbour. Much of Upper Egypt was still Christian, and it looked
   to the Nubian kingdoms for protection. One report has a Nubian army
   sacking Cairo in the eighth century to defend the Christians, but this
   is probably apocryphal^ .

   Not a great deal is known about Makuria during this period. One
   important story is that of Zacharias III sending his son Georgios to
   Baghdad to negotiate a reduction of the bakt. Georgios as king also
   plays a prominent role in the story of Arab adventurer al-Umari. The
   best evidence from this time is archaeological. Excavations show that
   this era was one of stability and seeming prosperity. Nubian pottery,
   painting, and architecture all reached their heights during this era.
   It also seems to have been a long period of stability in the Nile
   floods, without the famine caused by small floods or the destruction
   caused by large ones.

   Egypt and Makuria developed close and peaceful relations when Egypt was
   ruled by the Fatimids. The Shi'ite Fatimids had few allies in the
   Muslim world, and they turned to the southern Christians as allies.^
   Fatimid power also depended upon the black slaves provided by Makuria,
   who were used to man the Fatimid army. Trade between the two states
   flourished: Egypt sent wheat, wine, and linen south while Makuria
   exported ivory, cattle, ostrich feathers, and slaves. Relations with
   Egypt soured when the Ayyubids came to power in 1171. Early in the
   Ayyubid period the Nubians invaded Egypt, perhaps in support of their
   Fatimid allies.^ The Ayyubids repulsed their invasion and in response
   Salah-ed-din dispatched his brother Turan Shah to invade Nubia. He
   defeated the Nubians, and for several years occupied Qasr Ibrim before
   retreating north. The Ayyubids dispatched an emissary to Makuria to see
   if it was worth conquering, but he reported that the land was too poor.
   The Ayyubids seem to have thus largely ignored their southern neighbour
   for the next century.

Decline

   There are no records from travelers to Makuria from 1171 to 1272, and
   the events of this period have long been a mystery, although modern
   discoveries have shed some light on this era. During this period
   Makuria seems to have entered a steep decline. The best source on this
   is Ibn Khaldun, writing several decades later, who blamed it on Bedouin
   invasions and Nubian intermarriage with Arabs. The Ayyubids dealt very
   aggressively with the Bedouin tribes of the nearby deserts, forcing
   them south into conflict with the Nubians. Archaeology gives clear
   evidence of increasing instability in Makuria. Once unfortified cities
   gained city walls, the people retreated to better defended positions,
   such as the cliff tops at Qasr Ibrim. Houses throughout the region were
   built far sturdier, with secret hiding places for food and other
   valuables. Archaeology also shows increased signs of Arabization and
   Islamicization. Free trade between the kingdoms was part of the bakt,
   and over time Arab merchants became prominent in Dongola and other
   cities. Eventually the northern area, most of what was once Nobatia,
   had become largely Arabized and Islamicized. Largely independent of
   Dongola it was increasingly referred to as al-Maris.

   While the desert tribes may have been the most important destructive
   force, the campaigns of the Egyptian Mamlukes are far better
   documented. An important component of the bakt was the promise that
   Makuria would secure Egypt's southern border against raids by desert
   nomads, like the Beja. The Makurian state could no longer do this,
   prompting interventions by Egyptian armies that further weakened it. In
   1272 the Mamluk Sultan Baybars invaded, after King David I had attacked
   the Egyptian city of Aidhab, initiating several decades of intervention
   by the Mamlukes in Nubian affairs. Internal difficulties seem to have
   also hurt the kingdom. David's cousin Shekanda claimed the throne and
   traveled to Cairo to seek the support of the Mamelukes. They agreed and
   invaded Nubia in 1276, and placed Shekanda on the throne. The Christian
   Shekanda then signed an agreement making Makuria a vassal of Egypt, and
   a Mamluke garrison was stationed in Dongola. After only a few years of
   occupation Shamamun, another member of the Makurian royal family, led a
   rebellion that eventually defeated the Mamluk garrison. He offered the
   Egyptians an increase in the annual bakt payments in return for
   scrapping the obligations to which Shekanda had agreed. The Mamluke
   armies were occupied elsewhere, and the Sultan of Egypt agreed to this
   new arrangement.

   After a period of peace King Karanbas defaulted on these payments, and
   the Egyptians again invaded. This time a Muslim member of the Makurian
   dynasty was placed on the throne. Sayf al-Din Abdullah Barshambu began
   converting the nation to Islam and in 1317 the Dongola cathedral was
   turned into a mosque. This was not accepted by other Makurian leaders
   and the nation fell into civil war and anarchy. The countryside came
   under the control of the raiding tribes from the desert, and the
   monarchy was left with effective control over little more than the
   capital. The last known evidence of the Makurian dynasty is a call for
   aid in 1397. In 1412, the Awlad Kenz took control of Nubia and part of
   Egypt above the Thebaid, and remained the de facto rulers until 1517,
   when the area was conquered and amalgamated into Egypt by the armies of
   the Ottoman Sultan Selim.

Economy

   The main economic activity in Makuria was agriculture, with farmers
   growing several crops a year of barley, millet, and dates. The methods
   used were generally the same that had been used for millennia. Small
   plots of well irrigated land were lined along the banks of the Nile,
   which would be fertilized by the river's annual flooding. One important
   technological advance was the saqiya, an oxen-powered water wheel, that
   was introduced in the Roman period and helped increase yields and
   population density^ . Settlement patterns indicate that land was
   divided into individual plots rather than as in a manorial system. The
   peasants lived in small villages composed of clustered houses of
   sun-dried brick.

   Important industries included the production of pottery, based at
   Faras, and weaving based at Dongola. Smaller local industries include
   leatherworking, metalworking, and the widespread production of baskets,
   mats, and sandals from palm fibre.^ Also important was the gold mined
   in the Red Sea Hills to the east of Makuria.^

   Makurian trade was largely by barter as the state never adopted a
   currency. In the north, however, Egyptian coins were common.^ Makurian
   trade with Egypt was of great import. From Egypt a wide array of luxury
   and manufactured goods were imported. The main Makurian export was
   slaves. The slaves sent north were not from Makuria itself, but rather
   from further south and west in Africa^ . Little is known about Makurian
   trade and relations with other parts of Africa. There is some
   archaeological evidence of contacts and trade with the areas to the
   west such as Darfur and Kanem-Bornu, but few details. There seem to
   have been important political relations between Makuria and Christian
   Ethiopia to the south-east. For instance, in the 10th century, Georgios
   II successfully intervened on behalf of the unnamed ruler at that time,
   and persuaded Patriarch Philotheos of Alexandria to at last ordain an
   abuna, or metropolitan, for the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. However,
   there is little evidence of much trade between the two Christian
   states.

Government

   Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king was
   also considered a priest and could perform mass. ^How succession was
   decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son.
   After the eleventh century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was
   using the uncle-to-sister's-son system favoured for millennia in Kush.
   Shinnie speculates that the later form may have actually been used
   throughout, and that the early Arab writers merely misunderstood the
   situation and incorrectly described Makurian succession as similar to
   what they were used to^ .

   Little is known about government below the king. A wide array of
   officials, generally using Byzantine titles, are mentioned, but their
   roles are never explained. One figure who is well-known, thanks to the
   documents found at Qasr Ibrim, is the Eparch of Nobatia, who seems to
   have been the viceroy in that region after it was annexed to Makuria.
   The Eparch's records make clear that he was also responsible for trade
   and diplomacy with the Egyptians. Early records make it seem like the
   Eparch was appointed by the king, but later ones indicate that the
   position had become hereditary^ . This office would eventually become
   that of the "Lord of the Horses" ruling the autonomous and then
   Egyptian-controlled al-Maris.

   The bishops might have played a role in the governance of the state.
   Ibn Selim el-Aswani noted that before the king responded to his mission
   he met with a council of bishops.^ El-Aswani described a highly
   centralized state, but other writers state that Makuria was a
   federation of thirteen kingdoms presided over by the great king at
   Dongola.^ It is unclear what the reality was, but the Kingdom of
   Dotawo, prominently mentioned in the Qasr Ibrim documents, might be one
   of these sub-kingdoms^ .

Religion

   A painting from the Faras Cathedral depicting the birth of Jesus
   Enlarge
   A painting from the Faras Cathedral depicting the birth of Jesus

   One of the most debated issues among scholars is over the religion of
   Makuria. Up to the fifth century the old faith of Meroe seems to have
   remained strong, even while its counterpart in Egypt disappeared. In
   the fifth century the Nubians went so far as to launch an invasion of
   Egypt when the Christians there tried to turn some of the main temples
   into churches.^ Archaeological evidence in this period finds a number
   of Christian ornaments in Nubia, and some scholars feel that this
   implies that conversion from below was already taking place. Others
   argue that it is more likely that these reflected the faith of the
   manufacturers in Egypt rather than the buyers in Nubia.

   Certain conversion came with a series of sixth-century missions. The
   Byzantine Empire dispatched an official party to try to convert the
   kingdoms to Chalcedonian Christianity, but Empress Theodora reportedly
   conspired to delay the party to allow a group of Monophysites to arrive
   first.^ John of Ephesus reports that the Monophysites successfully
   converted the kingdoms of Nobatia and Alodia, but that Makuria remained
   hostile. John of Biclarum states that Makuria then embraced the rival
   Byzantine Christianity. Archaeological evidence seems to point to a
   rapid conversion brought about by an official adoption of the new
   faith. Millennia-old traditions such as the building of elaborate
   tombs, and the burying of expensive grave goods with the dead were
   abandoned, and temples throughout the region seem to have been
   converted to churches. Churches eventually were built in virtually
   every town and village^ .

   After this point the exact course of Makurian Christianity is much
   disputed. It is clear that by the seventh century Makuria had become
   officially Coptic and loyal to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria; the
   king of Makuria became the defender of the patriarch of Alexandria,
   occasionally intervening militarily to protect him, as Kyriakos did in
   722. This same period saw Melkite Makuria absorb the Coptic Nobatia,
   and historians have long wondered why the conquering state adopted the
   religion of its rival. It is fairly clear that Egyptian Coptic
   influence was far stronger in the region, and that Byzantine power was
   fading, and this might have played a role. Historians are also divided
   on whether this was the end of the Melkite/Coptic split as there is
   some evidence that a Melkite minority persisted until the end of the
   kingdom.

   The Makurian church was divided into seven bishoprics: Kalabsha, Qupta,
   Qasr Ibrim, Faras, Sai, Dongola, and Suenkur.^ Unlike Ethiopia, it
   appears that no national church was established and all seven bishops
   reported directly to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria. The bishops
   were appointed by the Patriarch, not the king, though they seem to have
   largely been local Nubians rather than Egyptians^ .

   Unlike in Egypt, there is not much evidence for monasticism in Makuria.
   According to Adams there are only three archaeological sites that are
   certainly monastic. All three are fairly small and quite Coptic,
   leading to the possibility that they were set up by Egyptian refugees
   rather than indigenous Makurians^ .

   The end of Christianity in Makuria is unclear, but we are offered a
   glimpse of the problems it faced from the account of the traveler
   Francisco Alvarez, who witnessed, while at the court of Emperor Lebna
   Dengel in the 1520s, an embassy from the Nubian Christians, who came to
   him asking for priests, bishops, and other personnel desperately needed
   to keep Christianity alive in their land. Lebna Dengel declined to
   help, stating that he received his bishop from the patriarch of
   Alexandria, and that they too should go to him for help^ .

Culture

   A wall painting from a Nubian church on display at the Khartoum Museum.
   It depicts the story from Daniel 3 of the three youths thrown into the
   furnace.
   Enlarge
   A wall painting from a Nubian church on display at the Khartoum Museum.
   It depicts the story from Daniel 3 of the three youths thrown into the
   furnace.

   Christian Nubia was long considered something of a backwater, mainly
   because its graves were small and lacking the grave goods of previous
   eras^ . Modern scholars realize that this was due to cultural reasons,
   and that the Makurians actually had a rich and vibrant art and culture.

   One of the most important discoveries of the rushed work prior to the
   flooding of Lower Nubia was the Cathedral of Faras. This large building
   had been completely filled with sand preserving a series of magnificent
   paintings. Similar, but less well preserved, paintings have been found
   at several other sites in Makuria, including palaces and private homes,
   giving an overall impression of Makurian art^ . The style and content
   was heavily influenced by Byzantine art, and also showed influence from
   Egyptian Coptic art and from Palestine^ . Mainly religious in nature,
   it depicts many of the standard Christian scenes. Also illustrated are
   a number of Makurian kings and bishops, with noticeably darker skin
   than the Biblical figures.

   Nubian pottery in this period is also notable. Shinnie refers to it as
   the "richest indigenous pottery tradition on the African continent."
   Scholars divide the pottery into three eras.^ The early period, from
   550 to 650 according to Adams, or to 750 according to Shinnie, saw
   fairly simple pottery similar to that of the late Roman Empire. It also
   saw much of Nubian pottery imported from Egypt rather than produced
   domestically. Adams feels this trade ended with the invasion of 652;
   Shinnie links it to the collapse of Umayyad rule in 750. After this
   domestic production increased, with a major production facility at
   Faras. In this middle era, which lasted until around 1100, the pottery
   was painted with floral and zoomorphic scenes and showed distinct
   Umayyad and even Sassanian influences.^ The late period during
   Makuria's decline saw domestic production again fall in favour of
   imports from Egypt. Pottery produced in Makuria became less ornate, but
   better control of firing temperatures allowed different colours of
   clay.

   There were a number of different languages in use in Makuria. In early
   centuries, when Byzantine influence was still strong, Greek was the
   primary written language and perhaps also the language used by the
   royal court. Greek continued to be used in later centuries for
   ceremonial purposes, such as on many gravestones, but these later
   inscriptions are marked by frequent spelling and grammar errors
   implying reduced knowledge of the language. Eventually Old Nubian,
   which was the language used by most of the population, became the main
   written language; Old Nubian translations of the bible and many other
   religious documents were used widely. One Arab traveler to the region
   stated that Nobatia and Makuria spoke different languages; almost all
   our documents are from what was Nobatia and this language seems
   ancestral to the modern Nobiin language still spoken in the region.
   Adams notes that the ancient border between Makuria and Nobatia today
   is close to the border between the Nobiin and Dongolawi languages.
   Another important language in Makuria was Coptic. Links with Egyptian
   Christians were strong and Makuria seems to have made wide use of
   Coptic religious literature. Makuria also saw regular influxes of
   Coptic-speaking Christian refugees from Egypt. In the later years of
   the kingdom's existence, Arabic became an increasingly important
   tongue. Arab traders were important throughout the area and Arabic
   seems to have become the language of commerce. As these traders
   settled, each major community gained an Arab quarter.

Rulers

   Note that dates are quite uncertain for most Makurian rulers.
     * Merkurios (c. 697–c. 722)
     * Zacharias I (c. 722–?)
     * Simon
     * Abraham (c. 744)
     * Markos (c. 744)
     * Kyriakos (c. 750)
     * Mikael (c. 790)
     * Johannes
     * Zacharias III (c. 822–c. 854)
     * Ali Baba (c. 854)
     * Israel
     * Georgios I (c. 872–c. 892)
     * Asabyos (c. 892)
     * Istabanos
     * Kubri (c. 943)
     * Zacharias IV
     * Georgios II (c. 969)
     * Simeon
     * Rafael (c. 1002)
     * Georgios III (?–1080)
     * Salomo (1080–89)
     * Basileios (1089–30)
     * Georgios IV (1130–71)
     * Moise (1171–1210)
     * Yahya (1210–68)
     * David I (1268–74)
     * David II (1274–76)
     * Shakanda (1276–12?)
     * Masqadat (?–1279)
     * Barak (1279–1286)
     * Samamun (1286–93)
     * Amai (1304–5)
     * Kudanbes (1305–24)

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