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Macedon

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology; European Geography

   Macedon's regions and towns
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   Macedon's regions and towns

   Macedon or Macedonia (from Greek Μακεδονία; see also List of
   traditional Greek place names) was the name of an ancient kingdom in
   the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordering the kingdom of
   Epirus on the west and the region of Thrace to the east. For a brief
   period it became the most powerful state in the ancient Near East after
   Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world, inaugurating the
   Hellenistic period of Greek history.

History

   Vergina Sun, a symbol associated with the Macedonian kingdom.
   Enlarge
   Vergina Sun, a symbol associated with the Macedonian kingdom.

Early history

   The Ancient Macedonians populated the more southerly portions of
   Macedon since pre-Classical times. The first Macedonian state emerged
   8th or early 7th century BC under the Argead Dynasty, when the
   Macedonians are said to have migrated to the region from further west.
   Their first king is recorded as Perdiccas I. Around the time of
   Alexander I of Macedon, the Macedonians started to expand into Eordaia,
   Bottiaea, Pieria, Mygdonia, and Almopia. Near the modern city of
   Edessa, Perdiccas I (or, more likely, his son, Argaeus I) built his
   capital, Aegae (modern Vergina).

   After a brief period of Persian overlordship under Darius Hystaspes,
   the state regained its independence under King Alexander I ( 495– 450
   BC). Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region
   approximately corresponding to the province of Macedonia of modern
   Greece. It became increasingly Hellenised during this period, though
   prominent Greeks appear to have regarded the Macedonians as being
   uncouth and somewhat barbaric.

   A unified Macedonian state was eventually established by King Amyntas
   III (c. 393– 370 BC), though it still retained strong contrasts between
   the cattle-rich coastal plain and the fierce isolated tribal
   hinterland, allied to the king by marriage ties. They controlled the
   passes through which barbarian invasions came from Illyria to the north
   and northwest. Amyntas had three sons; the first two, Alexander II and
   Perdiccas III reigned only briefly. Perdiccas III's infant heir was
   deposed by Amyntas' third son, Philip II of Macedon, who made himself
   king and ushered in a period of Macedonian dominance of Greece.

Expansion

   Philip II, king of Macedon
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   Philip II, king of Macedon
   The statue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki sea front
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   The statue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki sea front

   Under Philip II, ( 359– 336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of
   the Paionians, Thracians, and Illyrians. Among other conquests, he
   annexed the regions of Pelagonia and Southern Paionia (these regions
   respectively correspond to the Monastir/ Bitola and Gevgelija districts
   in the modern Republic of Macedonia).

   Macedon became more politically involved with the south-central
   city-states of Ancient Greece, but it also retained more archaic
   features like the palace-culture, first at Aegae (modern Vergina) then
   at Pella, resembling Mycenaean culture more than classic Hellenic
   city-states, and other archaic customs, like Philip's multiple wives in
   addition to his Epirote queen Olympias, mother of Alexander.

   Another archaic remnant was the very persistence of a hereditary
   monarchy which wielded formidable – sometimes absolute – power,
   although this was at times checked by the landed aristocracy, and often
   disturbed by power struggles within the royal family itself. This
   contrasted sharply with the Greek cultures further south, where the
   ubiquitous city-states possessed more-or-less democratic institutions;
   the de facto monarchy of tyrants, in which heredity was usually more of
   an ambition rather than the accepted rule; and the limited,
   predominantly military and sacerdotal, power of the twin hereditary
   Spartan kings. The same might have held true of feudal institutions
   like serfdom, which may have persisted in Macedon well into historical
   times. Such institutions were abolished by city-states well before
   Macedon's rise (most notably by the Athenian legislator Solon's famous
   σεισάχθεια seisachtheia laws).
   Map of Alexander the Great's empire.
   Enlarge
   Map of Alexander the Great's empire.

   Philip's son Alexander the Great ( 356– 323 BC) managed to briefly
   extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states,
   but also to the Persian empire, including Egypt and lands as far east
   as the fringes of India. Alexander's adoption of the styles of
   government of the conquered territories was accompanied by the spread
   of Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the
   empire fell apart shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting
   legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across
   Persia's western territories, heralding the Hellenistic period.

   Despite the empire's collapse into feuding kingdoms ruled by
   Alexander's generals, Macedonia itself remained a key and fiercely
   contested territory. It was ruled for a while by Demetrius I ( 294– 288
   BC) but fell into civil war. Antipater and his son Cassander gained
   control of Macedonia but it slid into a long period of civil strife
   following Cassander's death in 297 BC.

   Demetrius' son Antigonus II ( 277– 239 BC) successfully restored order
   and prosperity and repelled a Galatian invasion, though he lost control
   of many of the formerly controlled Greek city-states. He established a
   stable monarchy and gave rise to the Antigonid dynasty. His successor
   Antigonus II ( 239– 221 BC) built on these gains by re-establishing
   Macedonian power across the region.

Decline

   Under Philip V of Macedon ( 221– 179 BC) and his son Perseus of Macedon
   ( 179– 168 BC), the kingdom clashed with the rising power of the Roman
   Republic. During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Macedon fought a series
   of wars with Rome. Two major losses that led to their inevitable defeat
   were in 197 BC when Rome defeated Philip V, and 168 BC when Rome
   defeated Perseus. The overall losses resulted in the defeat of Macedon,
   the deposition of the Antigonid dynasty and the dismantling of the
   Macedonian kingdom. Andriscus' brief success at reestablishing the
   monarchy in 149 BC was quickly followed by his defeat the following
   year and the establishment of direct Roman rule and the organization of
   Macedon as the Roman province of Macedonia.

Institutions

   The political organization of the Macedonian kingdom was a three-level
   pyramid: on the top, the King and the nation, at the foot, the civic
   organizations (cities and éthnē), and among the two, the districts. The
   study of these different institutions has been considerably renewed
   thanks to epigraphy, which has given us the possibility to reread the
   indications given us by ancient literary sources such as Livy and
   Polybius. They show that the Macedonian institutions were near to those
   of the Greek federal states, like the Aetolian and Achaean leagues,
   whose unity was reinforced by the presence of the king.

The King

   The king (Βασιλεύς, Basileús) headed the central administration: he led
   the kingdom from its capital, Pella, and in his royal palace was
   conserved the state's archive. He was helped in carrying out his work
   by the Royal Secretary (βασιλικὸς γραμματεύς, basilikós grammateús),
   whose work was of primary importance, and by the Council.

   The king was commander of the army, head of the Macedonian religion,
   and director of diplomacy. Also, only he could conclude treatises, and,
   until Philip V, mint coins.

   The number of civil servants was limited: the king directed his kingdom
   mostly in an indirect way, supporting himself principally through the
   local magistrates, the epistates, with whom he constantly kept in
   touch.

Succession

   Royal succession in Macedon was hereditary, male, patrilineal and
   generally respected the principle of primogeniture. There was also an
   elective element: when the king died, his designated heir, generally
   but not always the eldest son, had first to be accepted by the council
   and then presented to the general Assembly to be acclaimed king and
   obtain the oath of fidelity.

   As can be seen, the succession was far from being automatic, more so
   considering that many Macedonian kings died violently, without having
   made dispositions for the succession, or having assurred themselves
   that these would be respected. This can be seen with Perdiccas III,
   slain by the Illyrians, Philip II assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis,
   Alexander the Great, suddenly died of malady, etc. Succession crises
   are frequent, especially up to the 4th century BC, when the magnate
   families of Upper Macedonia still cultivated the ambition of
   overthrowing thae Argaead dynasty and to ascend to the throne.

Finances

   The king was the simple guardian and administrator of the treasure of
   Macedon and of the king's incomes (βασιλικά, basiliká), which belonged
   to the Macedonians: and the tributes that came to the kingdom thanks to
   the treatises with the defeated people also went to the Macedonian
   people, and not to the king. Even if the king was not accountable for
   his management of the kingdom's entries, he may have felt responsible
   to defend his administration on certain occasions: Arrian tells us that
   during the mutiny of Alexander's soldiers at Opis in 324 BC, Alexander
   detailed the possessions of his father at his death to prove he had not
   abused his charge.

   It is known from Livy and Polybius that the basiliká included the
   following sources of income:
     * The mines of gold and silver (for example those of the Pangaeus),
       which were the exclusive possession of the king, and which
       permitted him to strike currency, as already said his sole
       privilege till Philip V, who conceded to cities and districts the
       right of coinage for the lesser denominations, like bronze.
     * The forests, whose timber was very appreciated by the Greek cities
       to build their ships: in particular, it is known that Athens made
       commercial treatises with Macedon in the 5th century BC to import
       the timber necessary for the construction and the maintenance of
       its fleet of war.
     * The royal landed properties, lands that were annexed to the royal
       demain through conquest, and that the king exploited either
       directly, in particular through servile workforce made up of
       prisoners of war, or indirectly through a leasing system.
     * The port duties on commerce (importation and exportation taxes).

   The most common way to exploit these different sources of income was by
   leasing: the Pseudo-Aristotle reports in the Oeconomica that Amyntas
   III (or maybe Philip II) doubled the kingdom's port revenues with the
   help of Callistratus, who had taken refuge in Macedon, bringing them
   from 20 to 40 talents per year. To do this, the exploitaition of the
   harbour taxes was given every year at the private offering the highest
   bidding. It is also known from Livy that the mines and the forests were
   leased for a fixed sum under Philip V, and it appears that the same
   happened under the Argaead dynasty: from here possibly comes the
   leasing system that was used in Ptolemaic Egypt.

   Except for the king's properties, land in Macedon was free: Macedonians
   were free men and did not pay land taxes on private grounds. Even
   extraordinary taxes like those payed by the Athenians in times of war
   did not exist. Even in conditions of economic peril, like what happened
   to Alexander in 334 BC and Perseus in 168 BC, the monarchy did not tax
   its subjects but raised funds through loans, first of all by his
   Companions, or rised the cost of the leases.

   The king could grant the atelíē (ἀτελίη), a privilege of tax exemption,
   as Alexander did with those Macedonian familes which had losses in the
   battle of the Granicus in May 334: they were exempted from paying
   tribute for leasing royal grounds and commercial taxes.

   Extraordinary incomes came from the spoils of war, which were divided
   between the king and his men. At the time of Philip II and Alexander,
   this was a considerable source of income. A considerable part of the
   gold and silver objects taken at the time of the European and Asian
   campaigns were melted in ingots and then sent to the monetary foundries
   of Pella and Amphipolis, most active of the kingdom at that time: an
   estimate judges that during the reign of Alexander only the mint of
   Amphipolis struck about 13 million silver tetradrachms.

The Assembly

   All the kingdom's citizen-soldiers gather in a popular assembly, which
   is held at least twice a year, in spring and in autumn, with the
   opening and the closing of the campaigning season.

   This assembly (koinê ekklesia or koinon makedonôn), of the army in
   times of war, of the people in times of peace, is called by the king
   and plays a significant role through the acclamation of the kings and
   in capital trials; it can be consulted (without obligation) for the
   foreign politics (declarations of war, treaties) and for the
   appointment of high state officials. In the majority of these
   occasions, the Assembly does nothing but ratify the proposals of a
   smaller body, the Council. It is also the Assembly which votes the
   honours, sends embassies, during its two annual meetings. It was
   abolished by the Romans at the time of their reorganization of
   Macedonia in 167 BC, to prevent, according to Livy, that a demagogue
   could make use of it as a mean to revolt against their authority.

Council (Synedrion)

   The Council was a small group formed among some of the most eminent
   Macedonians, chosen by the king to assist him in the government of the
   kingdom. As such it was not a representative assembly, but
   notwithstanding that on certain occasions it could be expanded with the
   admission of representatives of the cities and of the civic corps of
   the kingdom.

   The members of the Council (synedroi) belong to three categories:
     * The somatophylaxes (in Greek literally "bodyguards") are noble
       Macedonians chosen by the king to serve to him as honorary
       bodyguards, but especially as close advisers. It is a particularly
       prestigious honorary title. At the times of Alexander there were
       seven of them.
     * The Friends ( philoi) or the king's Companions (basilikoi hetairoi)
       are named for life by the king among the Macedonian aristocracy.
     * The most important generals of the army (hégémones tôn taxéôn),
       also named by the king.

   The king has in truth less power in the choice of the members of the
   Council than the appearances would warrant; this because many of the
   kingdom's most important noblemen are members of the Council by
   birth-right.

   The Council primarily exerted a probouleutic function with respect to
   the Assembly: it prepared and proposed the decisions which the Assembly
   would have discussed and voted, working in many fields such as the
   designation of kings and regents, as of that of the high administrators
   and the declarations of war. It was also the first and the last
   authority for all the cases which did not involve capital punishment.

   The Council frequently gathered and represented the principal body of
   government of the kingdom. Any important decision taken by the king was
   subjected before to a deliberation.

   Inside the Council ruled the democratic principles of isegoria
   (equality of word) and of parrhesia (freedom of speech), to which the
   king subjects himself like the other members.

   After the removal of the Antigonid dynasty by the Romans in 167 BC, it
   is possible that the synedrion remained, unlike the Assembly,
   representing the sole federal authority in Macedonia after the
   country's division in four merides .

Regional districts (merides)

   The merit of the creation of an intermediate territorial administrative
   level between the central government and the cities has to be probably
   ascribed to Philip II: this reform agreed with the need to adapt the
   kingdom's institutions to the great expansion of Macedon under his
   rule. It was not anymore easy to convene all the Macedonians in a
   single general assembly, and the awnser to this problem was the
   creation of four regional districts, each supplied with a regional
   assembly. These territorial divisions clearly did not follow any
   historical or traditional internal divisions; they were simply
   artificial administrative lines. This said, it should be added that the
   existence of these districts is not attested with certainity (by the
   numismatics) before the beginning of the 2nd century BC.

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