   #copyright

Kazakhstan

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Asian Countries;
Countries

   SOS Children works in Kazakhstan. For more information see SOS Children
   in Kazakhstan
         Қазақстан Республикасы
   Qazaqstan Respublïkası
   Республика Казахстан
   Respublika Kazakhstan
   Republic of Kazakhstan

   Flag of Kazakhstan Coat of arms of Kazakhstan
   Flag               Coat of arms
   Anthem: My Kazakhstan
   Location of Kazakhstan
           Capital          Astana
                            51°10′N 71°30′E
         Largest city       Almaty
      Official languages    Kazakh (state language), Russian
   Government               Republic
    - President             Nursultan Nazarbayev
    - Prime Minister        Daniyal Akhmetov
         Independence       From the Soviet Union
    - Declared              December 16, 1991
    - Finalized             December 25, 1991
                             Area
    - Total                 2,724,900 km² ( 9th)
                            1,052,085 sq mi
    - Water (%)             1.7
                          Population
    - January 2006 estimate 15,217,700 ( 62nd)
    - 1999 census           14,953,100
    - Density               5.4/km² ( 215th)
                            14.0/sq mi
          GDP ( PPP)        2005 estimate
    - Total                 $125.5 billion ( 56th)
    - Per capita            $8,318 ( 70th)
         HDI  (2003)        0.761 (medium) ( 80th)
           Currency         Tenge ( KZT)
          Time zone         ( UTC+5 to +6)
         Internet TLD       .kz
         Calling code       +7

   Kazakhstan, also spelled Kazakstan or Khazakhstan, ( Kazakh: Қазақстан,
   Qazaqstan, IPA [qɑzɑqˈstɑn]; Russian: Казахстан, Kazakhstán, IPA
   [kəzʌxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a country that
   stretches over a vast expanse of northern and central Eurasia. A small
   portion of its territory west of the Ural River is located in
   eastern-most Europe. It has borders with Russia, the People's Republic
   of China, and the Central Asian countries Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and
   Turkmenistan, and has a coastline on the Caspian Sea. Kazakhstan was a
   republic of the former Soviet Union and is now a member of the
   Commonwealth of Independent States.

   It is the ninth-largest country in the world by area, but it is only
   62nd country in population, with approximately 6 persons per km² (15
   per sq. mi.). Population in 2006 is estimated at 15,300,000, down from
   16,464,464 in 1989 due to the emigration of ethnic Russians and Volga
   Germans. Much of the country's land consists of semi-desert ( steppe)
   terrain.

History

   Humans have inhabited what is now known as Kazakhstan since the Stone
   Age, generally pursuing the nomadic movement pastoralism for which the
   region's climate and terrain are best suited. In fact, historians
   believe the vast steppes of modern day Kazakhstan were where humans
   first domesticated the horse. From the 4th century through the
   beginning of the 7th century, southern parts of the territory of what
   is now Kazakhstan were a part of and ruled by the Persian Empire, and
   after the invasion of Persia by Arabs, ruled by a few nomadic kingdoms
   . Following the Mongolian invasion in the early 13th century,
   administrative districts were established under the Mongol Empire,
   which eventually became the territories of the Kazakh Khanate (Ak
   Horde). The major medieval cities of Aulie-Ata and Turkestan were
   founded along the northern route of the Great Silk Road during this
   period.

   Traditional nomadic life on the vast steppe and semi-desert lands was
   characterized by a constant search for new pasture to support the
   livestock-based economy. The Kazakhs emerged from a mixture of tribes
   living in the region in about the 15th century and by the middle of the
   16th century had developed a common language, culture, and economy. In
   the early 1600s, the Kazakh Khanate separated into the Great, Middle
   and Little (or Small) Hordes (jüz)—confederations based on extended
   family networks. Political disunion, competition among the hordes, and
   a lack of an internal market weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The beginning
   of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. The area
   was a bone of contention between the Kazak emirs and the Persian Kings
   for many centuries.

   In the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and
   spread into Central Asia. The " Great Game" period is generally
   regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian
   Convention of 1907. Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 a second
   less intensive phase followed. The tsars effectively ruled over most of
   the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

   The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built
   military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence
   in Central Asia in the so-called " Great Game" between it and the
   United Kingdom. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and
   governmental organizations. Russian efforts to impose its system
   aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most
   Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption
   it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based
   economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s,
   sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. From the 1890s
   onwards ever-larger numbers of Slavic settlers began colonising the
   territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of
   Semirechie. The number of settlers rose still further once the
   Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and
   the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created
   Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg.
   The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and
   the incomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the
   final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the
   Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916.

   Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous
   period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs
   eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day
   Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a
   Soviet republic.

   Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced
   collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought mass hunger and led to
   unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus
   steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system.
   Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from
   other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home
   for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War
   battlefields. Some of these evacuees were deported to Siberia or
   Kazakhstan merely due to their ethnic heritage or beliefs, and were in
   many cases interned in some of the biggest Soviet labor camps. The
   Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national
   divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort.

   The period of World War II marked an increase in industrialization and
   increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time
   of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had
   an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader
   Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious " Virgin Lands" program to
   turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major
   grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy,
   along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev,
   sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day
   remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's
   population.

   Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political
   and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December
   1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty
   to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops
   suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed or
   killed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow
   and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of
   glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking
   greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic
   within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990.
   Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the
   subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared
   independence on December 16, 1991.

   The years following independence have been marked by significant
   reforms to the Soviet command-economy and political monopoly on power.
   Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the
   head of the Kazakh Communist Party and was eventually elected President
   in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing
   market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth
   since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.

   But, democracy has not improved much since 1991. An article from World
   War 3 web site says "In July 2000, Kazakhstan's parliament passed a law
   granting President Nursultan Nazarbayev lifetime powers and privileges,
   including access to future presidents, immunity from criminal
   prosecution, and influence over domestic and foreign policy. Critics
   say he has become a de facto "president for life." (Central
   Asia-Caucasus Institute briefing, July 5, 2000, ). Over the course of
   his ten years in power, Nazarbayev has repeatedly censored the press
   through arbitrary use of "slander" laws (RFE Newsline, April 12, 1996),
   blocked access to opposition web sites (Nov. 9, 1999), banned the
   Wahhabi religious sect (Sept. 5, 1998), drawn criticism from Amnesty
   International for excessive executions following specious trials (March
   21, 1996) and harsh prison conditions (Aug. 13, 1996), and refused
   demands that the governors of Kazakhstan's 14 oblasts be elected,
   rather than appointed by the president (April 7, 2000)."

Politics

   Nursultan Nazarbayev
   Enlarge
   Nursultan Nazarbayev

Political system

   Kazakhstan is a constitutional republic with a strong presidency. The
   president is the head of state. The president also is the commander in
   chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed
   by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who has been in
   office since Kazakhstan became independent, won a new 7-year term in
   the 1999 election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in
   Europe said fell short of international standards. The prime minister
   chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of
   government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in
   the Cabinet. Daniyal K. Akhmetov became the Prime Minister in June
   2003.

   Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, made up of the lower house (the
   Majilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts
   popularly elect 67 seats in the Majilis; there also are ten members
   elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The
   Senate has 39 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected
   assemblies ( Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative
   divisions (14 regions, or oblasts, plus the cities of Astana and
   Almaty). The president appoints the remaining seven senators. Majilis
   deputies and the government both have the right of legislative
   initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered
   by the Parliament.

Elections

   Elections to the Majilis in September 2004 yielded a lower house
   dominated by the pro-government Otan party, headed by President
   Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president,
   including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party, founded
   by President Nazarbayev’s daughter, won most of the remaining seats.
   Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in
   the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization
   for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international
   standards.

   In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of
   Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly
   was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is
   partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any
   status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights
   records improved.

   On December 4, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev was reelected in a landslide
   victory. The electoral commission announced that he had won over 90% of
   the vote. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
   (OSCE) concluded the election did not meet international standards
   despite some improvements in the administration of the election. Xinhua
   News Agency reported that Chinese observers, responsible in overseeing
   25 polling stations in Astana, found that voting in those polls was
   conducted in a "transparent and fair" manner. Furthermore, Western
   governments were muted in their criticism of the election.

Kazakh Intelligence Services

   Kazakhstan's National Security Committee (KNB) was established on 13
   June 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military
   Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign
   Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered by many as the most
   important part of KNB. Its director is Major General Omirtai Bitimov.

Administrative divisions

   Kazakhstan is divided into fourteen provinces (oblys) and three
   municipal districts (qala)*: Taldy-Korgan, Almaty*, Aqmola ( Astana),
   Aqtöbe, Astana*, Atyrau, Batys Qazaqstan ( Oral), Bayqongyr*,
   Mangghystau ( Aqtau; formerly Shevchenko), Ongtustik Qazaqstan (
   Shymkent), Pavlodar, Qaraghandy, Qostanay, Qyzylorda, Shyghys Qazaqstan
   ( Oskemen; formerly Ust'-Kamenogorsk), Soltustik Qazaqstan (
   Petropavl), Zhambyl ( Taraz; known as Dzhambul in the Soviet period,
   but before that as Aulie-Ata).

   Note: Administrative divisions have the same names as their
   administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative centre name
   following in parentheses); in 1995 the Governments of Kazakhstan and
   Russia entered into an agreement whereby Russia would lease for a
   period of 20 years an area of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq. mi);
   enclosing the Bayqongyr (Baykonur) space launch facilities and the city
   of Bayqongyr (formerly Leninsk). Just recently, the lease of Bayqongyr
   facilities was extended through 2050.

   Each is headed by an Akim (provincial governor) appointed by the
   president. Municipal Akims are appointed by oblast Akims. The
   Government of Kazakhstan transferred its capital from Almaty to Astana
   on December 10, 1997.

Geography

   Map of Kazakhstan
   Enlarge
   Map of Kazakhstan

   With an area of 2.7 million square kilometers (1.05 million sq. mi),
   Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest nation in the world. It is equivalent
   to the size of Western Europe. It shares borders of 6,846 kilometers
   (4,254  mi) with Russia, 2,203 kilometers (1,369 mi) with Uzbekistan,
   1,533 kilometers (953 mi) with the People's Republic of China, 1,051
   kilometers (653 mi) with Kyrgyzstan, and 379 kilometers (235 mi) with
   Turkmenistan. Major cities include Astana (capital since December
   1997), Almaty (the former capital), Karaganda, Shymkent (Chimkent),
   Semey (Semipalatinsk) and Turkestan.
   Syrdarya river in Kyzylorda province
   Enlarge
   Syrdarya river in Kyzylorda province

   The terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay
   Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the
   oasis and desert of Central Asia. The Kazakh Steppe, with an area of
   around 804,500 square kilometres (310,600 sq. mi), occupies one-third
   of the country and is the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe
   is characterized by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions.
   Important rivers and lakes include: the Aral Sea, Ili River, Irtysh
   River, Ishim River, Ural River, Lake Balkhash, and Lake Zaysan

   The climate is continental, with hot summers and colder winters.
   Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions.

Economy

   Main square in the new capital of Astana (built in 1998)
   Enlarge
   Main square in the new capital of Astana (built in 1998)

General situation

   The government of Kazakhstan plans to double its Gross domestic product
   (GDP) by 2008 and triple by 2015 compared to 2000. The GDP growth was
   stable in the last five years, and was higher than 9%. GDP growth in
   2005 was 9.2%, and 9.4% in 2004. Kazakhstan's economy grew by 9.2% in
   2003, buoyed by high world crude oil prices. GDP grew 9.5% in 2002; it
   grew 13.2% in 2001, up from 9.8% in 2000.

   Kazakhstan's monetary policy has been widely considered to be
   well-managed. Its principal challenges in 2002 were to manage strong
   foreign currency inflows without sparking inflation. In 2003 inflation
   did not remain under control, registering at 6.8% instead of the
   forecast level of 5.3%-6.0%. In 2002 inflation was 6.6%, compared to
   6.4% in 2001. Because of its strong macroeconomic performance and
   financial health, in 2000 Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet
   republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund
   (IMF), 7 years ahead of schedule. In March 2002, the U.S. Department of
   Commerce graduated Kazakhstan to market economy status under U.S. trade
   law. The change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms
   in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination,
   openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means
   of production and allocation of resources.

   In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the former
   Soviet Union to receive an investment-grade credit rating from a major
   international credit rating agency. As of late December 2003,
   Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total
   governmental debt was $4.2 billion. This amounts to 14% of the GDP.
   There has been a noticeable reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP
   observed in past years; the ratio of total governmental debt to GDP in
   2000 was 21.7%, in 2001 it was 17.5%, and in 2002 it was 15.4%.

   The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax
   and financial sector reforms, dramatically improved government finances
   from the 1999 budget deficit level of 3.5% of GDP to a deficit of 1.2%
   of GDP in 2003. Government revenues grew from 19.8% of GDP in 1999 to
   22.6% of GDP in 2001, but decreased to 16.2% of GDP in 2003. In 2000,
   Kazakhstan adopted a new tax code in an effort to consolidate these
   gains. On November 29, 2003 the Law on Changes to Tax Code was adopted,
   which reduced tax rates. The value added tax fell from 16% to 15%, the
   social tax from 21% to 20%, and the personal income tax from 30% to
   20%. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on
   June 20, 2003, and a customs code on April 5, 2003.
   The Tenge, Kazakhstan's currency
   Enlarge
   The Tenge, Kazakhstan's currency

   Energy is the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil and
   natural gas condensate in Kazakhstan amounted to 51.2 million tons in
   2003, which was 8.6% more than in 2002. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas
   condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13% higher than in
   2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003 amounted to 13.9 billion
   cubic meters (491 billion  cu. ft), up 22.7% compared to 2002,
   including natural gas production of 7.3 billion cubic meters (258
   billion  cu. ft); Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tons of proven
   recoverable oil reserves and 2,000 cubic kilometers (480  cu mi) of
   gas. Industry analysts believe that planned expansion of oil
   production, coupled with the development of new fields, will enable the
   country to produce as much as 3 million barrels (477,000 m³) per day by
   2015, lifting Kazakhstan into the ranks of the world's top 10
   oil-producing nations. Kazakhstan's 2003 oil exports were valued at
   more than $7 billion, representing 65% of overall exports and 24% of
   the GDP. Major oil and gas fields and their recoverable oil reserves
   are Tengiz with 7 billion barrels (1.1 km³); Karachaganak with 8
   billion barrels (1.3 km³) and 1,350 km³ of natural gas); and Kashagan
   with 7 to 9 billion barrels (1.1 to 1.4 km³).

   Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious pension reform program in 1998. As
   of January 1, 2005, the pension assets were about $4.1 billion. There
   are 16 saving pension funds in the republic. The State Accumulating
   Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, could be privatized as early
   as 2006. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and
   regulates the pension funds. The pension funds' growing demand for
   quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt
   securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost
   exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of
   Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing
   rapidly. The banking system's capitalization now exceeds $1 billion.
   The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to
   strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks have
   branches in Kazakhstan, including ABN AMRO, Citibank, and HSBC.

Foreign relations

   Nursultan Nazarbayev with Viktor Yushchenko, President of Ukraine
   Enlarge
   Nursultan Nazarbayev with Viktor Yushchenko, President of Ukraine

   Kazakhstan has stable relationships with all of its neighbors and is a
   member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation
   in Europe, Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council and Organization of the
   Islamic Conference (OIC). It is an active participant in the North
   Atlantic Treaty Organisation's (NATO) Partnership for Peace program.
   Kazakhstan is also a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States,
   the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and the Shanghai
   Cooperation Organization along with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan,
   Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Kazakhstan, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and
   Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 to
   re-energize earlier efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the
   creation of a free trade zone under a customs union.

   Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the
   multidimensional foreign policy (многовекторная внешняя политика),
   seeking equally good relations with two large neighbors, Russia and
   China, and the United States and the West generally. The policy has
   yielded results in the oil and gas sector, where companies from the
   U.S., Russia, China, and Europe are present at all major fields, and in
   the multidimensional directions of oil export pipelines out of
   Kazakhstan.

   Kazakhstan possesses the Soviet equivalent to the United States' Cape
   Canaveral, where the Soviet Union launched its version of the space
   shuttle and the well-known space station Mir. Russia currently leases
   approximately 6,000 km² (2,300 mi²) of territory enclosing the Baikonur
   Cosmodrome space launch site in south central Kazakhstan.

   On June 18, 2006, Kazakhstan joined the club of the world's space
   powers in its own right when it launched its first commercial
   satellite, KazSat 1, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on a Russian built
   booster rocket.

   In September 2006, the government announced that it is funding
   distribution of a multi million dollar movie called " Nomad" about the
   history of the nation. The movie started in 2003, and has been plagued
   with multiple development problems, though it is now 'on track' for
   release in 2006-2007. News reports erroneously suggested the government
   was sponsoring this movie as an effort to combat negative international
   publicity, including the satirical character Borat.

   In September 2006, President Nursultan Nazarbayev visited the United
   States, where he met with President George W. Bush at the Oval Office,
   several key members of the U.S. Administration and Congress. While in
   Washington, President Nazarbayev unveiled the Monument of Independence
   of Kazakhstan and addressed a large gathering of the political and
   business elite on Kazakhstan's approach to nuclear nonproliferation.

Demographics

Population

   The population is estimated to be 53% ethnic Kazakhs and 30% ethnic
   Russians, with an amazingingly rich array of other groups represented,
   including Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Germans, Chechens, and Uyghurs - that is,
   virtually any group that has ever come under the Russian sphere of
   influence. Many minorities such as Russian Germans, Poles, Romanians,
   Ukrainians and Russian political opponents of the regime had been
   deported to Kazakhstan in 30-ies and 40-ies of the last century by
   Stalin. One of the biggest Soviet labor camps existed in Kazakhstan.
   There is also a small but active Jewish community. Before 1991 there
   were one million Volga Germans in Kazakhstan; most of them emigrated to
   Germany following the breakup of the Soviet Union. The main religious
   groups are Sunni Islam, Russian Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism.

   The small population of Hindus is persecuted. Recently, their temple
   was razed to the ground, ostensibly on the ground that it was illegal.

   Kazakhstan is a bilingual country: the Kazakh language, spoken by 64.4%
   of the population, has the status of the "state" language, while
   Russian is declared the "official" language, and is used routinely in
   business.

   The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's
   Europeans, a process that began in the 1970s; this was a major factor
   in giving the autochthonous Kazakhs a majority along with higher Kazakh
   birthrates and ethnic Kazakh immigration from the People's Republic of
   China, Mongolia and Russia. In the early 21st century, Kazakhstan has
   become one of the leading nations in international adoptions.

Kazakhs and Kazakhstanis (terminology)

   For many years, Russians often outnumbered the Kazakhs in many parts of
   the area known today as Kazakhstan. Even now, Russians and people of
   other ethnic origins play an important role in the economy and
   government and consider the country their home.

   The Russian term казахстанец (Kazakhstani) was coined to describe all
   inhabitants of Kazakhstan, including non-Kazakhs. The word "Kazakh" is
   generally used to refer to people of actual Kazakh descent (including
   those living in China, Afghanistan, and other Central Asian countries).

   Ethnicon Kazakh is derived from an ancient Turkic word “independent, a
   free spirit” and fully reflects the nature of the Kazakh people, who
   have been in all times aspiring to an independent, autonomous
   existence. It is the result of Kazakhs' nomadic horseback culture and
   is related to the term " cossack". The Avestan/ Old Persian (See
   Indo-European languages) word "stan" means "land" or "place of".

Education

   Education is universal and mandatory through to the secondary level and
   the adult literacy rate is 99.5%. Education consists in three main
   educational phases: primary education (forms 1-4), basic general
   education (forms 5-9) and senior level education (forms 10-11 or 12)
   divided into continued general education and professional education.
   (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre-school education.)
   These three levels of education can be followed in one institution or
   in different ones (e.g. primary school, then secondary school).
   Recently, several secondary schools, specialized schools, magnet
   schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, linguistic and technical gymnasiums, have
   been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special
   professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational
   schools.

   At present, there are universities, academies, and institutes,
   conservatories, higher schools and higher colleges. There are three
   main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of
   the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the Bachelor
   degree; specialized higher education after which students are awarded
   the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education
   which leads to the Master's Degree. Postgraduate education leads to the
   Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) and the Doctor of Sciences. With
   the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a
   private sector has been established and several private institutions
   have been licensed.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
