   #copyright

Jewellery

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Art

   Jewellery (jewelry in American English) is any piece of fine material
   used to adorn the human body. The word jewellery is derived from the
   word jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French "jouel" in around
   the 13th century. Further tracing leads back to the Latin word
   "jocale", meaning plaything. Jewellery has probably been around since
   the dawn of man; indeed, recently found 100,000 year-old Nassarius
   shells that were made into beads are thought to be the oldest known
   jewellery.

   Although in earlier times jewellery was created for more practical
   uses, such as wealth storage and pinning clothes together, in recent
   times it has been used almost exclusively for decoration. The first
   pieces of jewellery were made from natural materials, such as bone,
   animal teeth, shell, wood, and carved stone. Jewellery was often made
   for people of high importance to show their status and, in many cases,
   they were buried with it.

   Jewellery is made out of almost every material known and has been made
   to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings and many
   more types of jewellery. While high-quality and artistic pieces are
   made with gemstones and precious metals, less-costly costume jewellery
   is made from less-valuable materials and is mass-produced.

Form and function

   Kenyan man wearing tribal beads.
   Enlarge
   Kenyan man wearing tribal beads.

   Jewellery has been used for a number of reasons:
     * Currency, wealth display and storage,
     * Functional use (such as clasps, pins, and buckles)
     * Symbolism (to show membership or status)
     * Protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards), and
     * Artistic display

   Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large
   amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures
   move wedding dowries in the form of jewellery, or create jewellery as a
   means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used
   as a currency or trade good; a particularly poignant example being the
   use of slave beads.

   Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles originated as
   purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their
   functional requirement deminished.

   Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of
   the Christian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or of status, as in the
   case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people
   wearing a wedding ring.

   Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward
   off evil is nearly universal; these may take the form of symbols (such
   as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa),
   or glyphs (such as stylized versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic
   art).

   Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewellery from
   the very beginning, the other roles described above tended to take
   primacy. It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such
   masters as Peter Carl Fabergé and René Lalique, that art began to take
   primacy over function and wealth. This trend has continued into modern
   times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris.

Materials and methods

   Anticlastic forged sterling bracelet.
   Enlarge
   Anticlastic forged sterling bracelet.

   In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are
   used, often set into precious metals. Precious metals used for modern
   jewellery include gold, platinum or silver, although alloys of nearly
   every metal known can be encountered in jewellery -- bronze, for
   example, was common in Roman times. Most gold jewellery is made of an
   alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a
   number followed by the letter K. For example, ordinary gold jewellery
   ranges from 10K (41.7% pure gold) to 22K (91.6% pure gold), while 24K
   (99.9% pure gold) is considered too soft for jewellery use. Platinum
   alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95.0% pure). The silver used
   in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver.

   Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused glass or
   enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal
   substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay, polymer clay, and even
   plastics.
   A selection of diamonds.
   Enlarge
   A selection of diamonds.

   Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass,
   gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery
   commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and belts. Beads
   may be large or small, the smallest type of beads used are known as
   seed beads; these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded
   jewellery.

   Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian
   glassmasters developed crystalline glass, enameled glass (smalto),
   glass with threads of gold (aventurine), multicolored glass (
   millefiori), milk glass (lattimo) and imitation gemstones made of
   glass. As early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads were
   popular.

   Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries methods include forging,
   casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving, and "cold-joining"
   (using adhesives, staples, and rivets to assemble parts).

Diamonds

   Diamonds, long considered the most prized of gemstones, were first
   mined in India. Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some
   debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas;
   Currently, Africa and Canada rank among the primary sources.

   The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the
   largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75
   carats. Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the
   marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.

Other gemstones

   Although diamonds are considered the most prized of all gemstones, many
   other precious stones are used for jewellery. Some gems, for example,
   amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and
   importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place
   of natural gems, an example is the cubic zirconia, used in place of the
   diamond.

Impact on society

   Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for
   instance, only certain ranks could wear rings; later, sumptuary laws
   dictated who could wear what type of jewellery; again based on rank.
   Cultural dictates have also played a significant role; for example, the
   wearing of earrings by Western men was considered "effeminate" in the
   19th and early 20th centuries.

   Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a
   campaign to popularize wedding rings for men — which caught on — as
   well as engagement rings for men - which did not, going so far as to
   create a false history and claim that the practice had Medieval roots.
   By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the U.S. featured a double-ring
   ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s. Religion has also played a role:
   Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as a social
   taboo, and many religions have edicts against excessive display.

History

   The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among
   different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has
   provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked.

Early history

   The Nassarius beads thought to be the oldest form of jewellery.
   Enlarge
   The Nassarius beads thought to be the oldest form of jewellery.

   The first signs of jewellery came from the Cro-Magnons, ancestors of
   Homo sapiens, around 40,000 years ago. The Cro-Magnons originally
   migrated from the Middle East to settle in Europe and replace the
   Neanderthals as the dominant species. The jewellery pieces they made
   were crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth and stone hung on
   pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to
   secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or
   mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of
   mammoth tusk have been found. Most commonly, these have been found as
   grave-goods. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery
   was seen.

Africa

Egypt

   Amulet pendant, 254 BCE. Gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian, 14
   cm wide.
   Enlarge
   Amulet pendant, 254 BCE. Gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian, 14
   cm wide.

   The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was
   around 3,000-5,000 years ago. The Egyptians preferred the luxury,
   rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. Predynastic Egypt
   had already acquired much gold; although the Egyptians acquired gold
   from the eastern deserts of Africa and from Nubia, in later years they
   captured it in the spoils of war or acquired it as tributes from other
   nations.

   Jewellery in Egypt soon began to symbolise power and religious power in
   the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it
   was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among
   grave goods. Unfortunately, grave robbers have destroyed much of the
   archeological evidence.

   In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass in
   place of precious gems. Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones,
   they preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural
   colours of stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass
   formulation used by the Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the
   jewellery was very important, as different colours meant different
   things; the Book of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around
   a mummy’s neck must be red to satisfy Isis’s need for blood, while
   green jewellery meant new growth for crops and fertility. Although
   lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country’s
   borders, most other materials for jewellery were found in or near
   Egypt, for example in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians mined
   Cleopatra's favourite gem, the emerald. Egyptian jewellery was
   predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces.

   Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also,
   ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade
   between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women wore
   elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.

Europe and the Middle East

Mesopotamia

   By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a
   significant craft in the cities of Sumer and Akkad. The most
   significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of
   Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs
   such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artifacts in gold,
   silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns
   embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and
   jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive
   amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy
   multistrand necklaces, and cylinder seals.

   Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf
   and was set with large numbers of brightly-colored stones (chiefly
   agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favored shapes included leaves,
   spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for
   human use and for adorning statues and idols; they employed a wide
   variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonne,
   engraving, fine granulation, and filigree.

   Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade
   and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout
   Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal
   archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of
   jewellery:


   Jewellery

       1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat
     speckled chalcedony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of
                                    five.

       1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat
   speckled chalcedony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make
                           up the hanging device.

   1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis
             lazuili beads, [and] 29 flutd beads for its clasp.


   Jewellery

Greece

   Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BCE
   Enlarge
   Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BCE

   The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1,400 BC,
   although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in
   earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured
   jewellery and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds. Also, the first
   signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian
   Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery
   was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and
   workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity
   different materials were soon utilized.

   Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public
   appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift
   and was predominantly worn by woman to show their wealth, social status
   and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer
   protection from the “ Evil Eye” or endowed the owner with supernatural
   powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of
   jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest
   production of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and
   Macedon. However, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of
   gold and silver with ivory and gems, bronze and clay copies were made
   also.
   Pendant with naked woman. Electrum, Rhodes, ca. 630-620 BCE
   Enlarge
   Pendant with naked woman. Electrum, Rhodes, ca. 630-620 BCE

   Jewellery makers in Ancient Greece were largely anonymous. They worked
   the types of jewellery into two different styles of pieces; cast pieces
   and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery
   have been recovered; it was made by casting the metal onto two stone or
   clay moulds. Then the two halves were joined together and wax and then
   molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been in
   practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery
   was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to the
   right thickness & then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets
   would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work.
   Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then
   used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to
   hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface.
   Ancient Greek jewellery from 300 BC.
   Enlarge
   Ancient Greek jewellery from 300 BC.

   The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia
   when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs,
   other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to
   Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC,
   Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not
   to say that indigenous design did not thrive; numerous polychrome
   butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st
   century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found
   anywhere else.

Rome

   Roman Amethyst intaglio pendant, c. 212 CE; later converted to St.
   Peter medallion.
   Enlarge
   Roman Amethyst intaglio pendant, c. 212 CE; later converted to St.
   Peter medallion.

   Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times,
   especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the
   Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller
   factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early
   Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The
   Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their
   extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they
   sometimes used bronze or bone and in earlier times, glass beads &
   pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires
   and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In
   Roman-ruled England, fossilized wood called jet from Northern England
   was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in
   crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings and bracelets. They
   also produced larger pendants which could be filled with perfume.

   Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off
   the “Evil Eye” given by other people. Although woman wore a vast array
   of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were
   expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every
   finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with a
   carved stone on it that was used with wax to seal documents, an act
   that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the
   same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs
   were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.

Middle Ages

   Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothèque Nationale de France
   Enlarge
   Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothèque Nationale de France
   Eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonné fibula from Guadalajara, Spain.
   Bronze. 6th century.
   Enlarge
   Eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonné fibula from Guadalajara, Spain.
   Bronze. 6th century.

   Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills; the
   Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery,
   which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of Byzantium.
   Clothing fasteners, amulets, and to a lesser extent signet rings are
   the most common artefacts known to us; a particularly striking celtic
   example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughout Europe as a
   symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was
   common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet
   rings) seems to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a
   6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative; the
   young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins),
   bracelet, gold earings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle. The
   Celts specialized in continuous patterns and designs; while Merovignian
   designs are best known for stylized animal figures. They were not the
   only groups known for high quality work; note the Visigoth work shown
   here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship
   burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England, are a particularly well-known
   example. On the continent, cloisonné and garnet were perhaps the
   quintessential method and gemstone of the period.
   Byzantine wedding ring.
   Enlarge
   Byzantine wedding ring.

   The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire,
   continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes
   came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Frankish, and the Celts,
   however, Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold,
   and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West,
   Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery
   apparently restricted to signet rings. Like other contemporary
   cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner.

Renaissance

   Sardonyx cameo.
   Enlarge
   Sardonyx cameo.

   The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the
   development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing
   exploration and trade lead to increased availability of a wide variety
   of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas
   prior to this the working of gold and precisou metal had been at the
   forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of
   gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the
   Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London England
   during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It
   contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel,
   iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghani lapis
   lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and
   Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set
   in box-bezels on enamelled rings. Notable among merchants of the period
   was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who in the 1660s brought the precursor
   stone of the Hope Diamond to France.

   When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804,
   he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France.
   Under Napoleon’s rule, jewellers introduced parures, suits of matching
   jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a
   diamond brooch and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon’s wives had
   beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion
   trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo
   decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought after. The period
   also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered
   glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone
   cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who
   worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who
   worked with expensive materials were called joailliers; a practice
   which continues to this day.

Romanticism

   Mourning jewellery: Jet Brooch, 19th century
   Enlarge
   Mourning jewellery: Jet Brooch, 19th century

   Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on
   the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant
   influences were the public’s fascination with the treasures being
   discovered through the birth of modern archaeology, and the fascination
   with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the
   onset of the industrial revolution also lead to growth of a middle
   class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of
   industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes, lead to
   the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths
   continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure
   that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses,
   not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though
   superior artistic and technical work; one such artist was the French
   goldsmith Françoise Désire Fromment Meurice. A category unique to this
   period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was
   mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was
   often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert; and
   allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a
   state of mourning at the death of a loved one.

   In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany &
   Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the
   world map in terms of jewellery, and gained fame creating dazzling
   commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln; later it
   would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at
   Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while
   1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern production studio
   had been born; a step away from the former dominance of individual
   craftsmen and patronage.

   This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and
   West; collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists
   lead to Shakudo plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the
   Stoeffler firm in 1885). Perhaps the grand finale – and an appropriate
   transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of
   the Russian artist Peter Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian
   court, whose Fabergé eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as
   the epitome of the goldsmith’s art.

Art Nouveau

   In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potentials of the growing
   Art Nouveau style. Very closely related were the German Jugendstil,
   British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts movement. René
   Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognized by
   contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt
   Artists' Colony and Wiener Werkstaette provided perhaps the most
   significant German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen
   –though best known for his Silverware also contributed significant
   pieces/ In England, Liberty & Co and the British arts & crafts movement
   of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still
   characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's
   art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece
   itself; Lalique's famous dragonfly design is one of the best examples
   of this. Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous
   organic lines are the most recognizable designb feature. The end of
   World War One once again changed public attitudes; and a more sober
   style was set to take centre-stage.

Deco

   Growing political tensions, the aftereffects of the war, and a general
   reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the century led
   to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass
   production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s
   and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter
   Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no
   barriers between artists and craftsmen" lead to some interesting and
   stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced:
   plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are
   the chromed pendants of Russian born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky.
   Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself; in the west,
   this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth
   Treskow (although development of the re-invention has continued into
   the 1990s)..

Asia

   Jewellery making in Asia started in China 5,000 years ago and in the
   Indus Valley region later on. With roots set deep in religious designs,
   Asian jewellery was very decorative and used most often in ceremonies.

China

   The earliest culture to begin making jewellery in Asia was the Chinese
   around 5,000 years ago. Chinese jewellery designs were very
   religion-orientated and contained many Buddhist symbols, a fact which
   remains to this day.

   The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more often than gold, and
   decorated it with their favourite colour, blue. Blue kingfisher
   feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems
   and glass were incorporated into designs. However, Chinese preferred
   jade over any other stone. They fashioned it using diamonds, as
   indicated in finds from areas in the country. The Chinese revered jade
   because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its
   hardness, durability and beauty. The first jade pieces were very
   simple, but as time progressed, more complex design evolved. Jade rings
   from beween the 4th and 7th centuries BCE show evidence of having been
   worked with a compound milling machine; hunderds of years before the
   first mention of such equipment in the west.

   In China, jewellery was worn frequently by both sexes to show their
   nobility and wealth. However, in later years, it was used to accentuate
   beauty. Woman wore highly detailed gold and silver head dresses and
   numerous other items, while men wore decorative hat buttons which
   showed rank and gold or silver rings. Woman also wore strips of gold on
   their foreheads, much like women in the Indus Valley. The band served a
   purpose like an early form of tiara and it was often decorated with
   precious gems. The most common piece of jewellery worn by Chinese was
   the earring, which was worn by both men and women. Amulets were also
   common too, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. In fact, dragons,
   Chinese symbols and also phoenixes were frequently depicted on
   jewellery designs.

   The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves; most Chinese
   graves found by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery.

India

   The Indian sub-continent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery
   making anywhere. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by
   waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of
   art forms for some 5000 years. One of the first to start jewellery
   making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization. By 1,500 BC
   the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and
   necklaces, bead necklaces and metallic bangles. Before 2,100 BC, prior
   to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade
   in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus
   Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would
   need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader.
   The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated
   until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus
   Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a
   hole drilled through it with primitive drills. The beads were then
   polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was
   often passed down through family; children of bead makers often learnt
   how to work beads from a young age.

   Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who
   wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often
   shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were
   discarded for more durable ones. In India today, bangles are made out
   of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin
   bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive
   brooches, chokers and gold rings. The people of the region were much
   more urbanised than the rest of the area, so the jewellery worn was of
   heavier make once the civilization developed. Although women wore
   jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small
   beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women’s hair. The
   beads were so small they usually measured in at only 1 millimetre long.

   Unlike many other cultures, Indus Valley jewellery was never buried
   with the dead. Instead, jewellery was passed down to children or
   family. Nobility and goldsmiths often hid their jewellery under their
   floorboards to avoid theft.

   As time progressed, the methods for jewellery advanced, thus allowing
   complex jewellery to be made. Necklaces were soon adorned with gems and
   green stone.

   Although they used other gems prior, India was the first country to
   mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. However, axes
   dating to 4,000 BC found in China from previous factions of the
   country, contain traces of diamond dust used to sharpen the blades.
   While China used the diamonds they found mainly for carving jade, India
   traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. This trade
   almost vanished 1,000 years after Christianity grew as a religion, as
   Christians rejected the diamonds which were used in Indian religious
   amulets. Along with Arabians from the Middle East restricting the
   trade, India’s diamond jewellery trade lulled.

   Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are still used and
   jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.

Americas

   Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the
   Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery
   making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South
   America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs
   and Mayans created numerous works in the metal. Among the Aztecs, only
   nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power and
   wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was
   often decorated with feathers from birds. The main purpose of Aztec
   jewellery was to draw attention, with richer and more powerful Aztecs
   wearing brighter, more expensive jewellery and clothes. Although gold
   was the most common and popular material used in Aztec jewellery,
   silver was also readily available throughout the American empires. In
   addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in
   sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem encrusted daggers
   to perform animal and humen sacrifices.

   Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery
   making was the Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were
   making beautiful jewellery from jade, gold, silver, bronze and copper.
   Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish head
   dresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However,
   in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so made the
   majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and
   nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya
   Empire, much the same as with the Aztecs.

   In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and
   soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The Native
   Americans utilized the properties of the stone and used it often in
   their jewellery, particularly in earlier periods. The turquoise was
   used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with
   access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in
   American, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great
   importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America.

   Although initially of interest either as a curiosity or a source of raw
   material, jewellery designs from the Americas has come to play a
   significant role in modern jewellery ( see below).

Pacific

   Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas
   because of relatively recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery
   was made of bone, wood and other natural materials, and thus, has not
   survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with
   headdresses, necklaces, hair pins and arm and waist belts being the
   most common pieces amongst island cultures. Jewellery made of flowers
   in Hawaii are called leis and are now commonly associated with that
   area and its laid back, tourist friendly attitude.

   Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to
   be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headresses are worn
   by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New
   Guinea, wear certain headresses once they have killed an enemy. Like
   the typical tribal cliché, many tribesman wear boar bones through their
   noses.

   Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of
   communication with outside cultures; some areas of Borneo and Papua New
   Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island
   nations which were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic
   changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaires saw any type of
   tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus
   many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to
   Christianity.
   A modern opal bracelet from Australia.
   Enlarge
   A modern opal bracelet from Australia.

   Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world.
   Although Australia wasn’t colonised until later on in history, it is
   now famous for its vast supplies of opals. Opals had already been mined
   in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late
   1800’s, the Australian opal market entered as the dominant producer of
   opals. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around
   the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific.

   One of the few cultures to today still create their jewellery as they
   did many centuries prior is the New Zealand Māori, who create Hei-tiki.
   The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent; it may either relate
   to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Māori, or fertility, as
   there is a strong connection between this and Tiki. Another suggestion
   from historians is that the Tiki is a product of the ancient belief of
   a god named Tiki, perhaps dating back to before the Māoris settled in
   New Zealand. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone
   (commonly whale), nephrite or bowenite; a lengthy and spiritual
   process. The Hei-tiki is now popular amongst tourists who can buy it
   from souvenier or jeweller shops.

   Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, jewellery in New
   Zealand remains similar to other western civilizations; multi cultural
   and varied. This is more noticeable in New Zealand because of its high
   levels of non-European citizens.

Modern

   Modern jewellery has never been as diverse as it is in the present day.
   The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay
   (PMC) and different colouring techniques, has led to increased variety
   in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearls
   harvesting by people such as Kokichi Mikimoto and the development of
   improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a synthetic
   diamond), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much
   larger segment of the population. The "jewellery as art" movement,
   spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris, has kept jewellery
   on the leading edge of artistic design. Influence from other cultural
   forms is also evident; one example of this is bling-bling style
   jewellery, popularized by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st
   century. With the world's designs more accessible to jewellers, designs
   have blended in aspects from many different cultures from many
   different periods in time.

   The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental
   techniques such as Mokume-gane. Tim McCreight, an eminent authour and
   silversmith, cites the following as the primary innovations in the
   decades stadling the year 2000: " Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming,
   anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodizing, shell
   forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM."

   Among early 21st century developments, several jewellers have
   experimented with ephemeral edible jewellery; including necklaces made
   of bread and silver rings encrusted with crystalized sugar.

   Artisan Jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession.
   With more than 17 U.S. periodicals about beading alone, resources,
   accessibility and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand
   production of hand-made adornments. Popular because of its uniqueness,
   artisan jewellery can be found in just about any price range. Some fine
   examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum .

Body modification

   Young girl from the Padaung tribe.
   Enlarge
   Young girl from the Padaung tribe.

   It can be difficult to determine where jewellery leaves off and body
   modification takes over. For the most part, jewellery used in body
   modification is plain; the use of simple silver studs, rings and
   earrings predominates. In fact, common jewellery pieces such as
   earrings, are themselves a form of body modification, as they are
   accommodated by creating a small hole in the human ear.

   Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks.
   From as early as 5 years old, girls are introduced to their first neck
   ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the
   twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as
   many rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like
   this can reach 10-15 inches long; the practice has obvious health
   impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultural norm
   to tourist curiosity. Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other
   cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes,
   or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since
   before first contact by innu and first nations peoples of the northwest
   coast. Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as
   well as some South American peoples.

   In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to
   many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures.
   Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and
   decorative objects; thus keeping the distinction between these two
   types of decoration blurred. As with other forms of jewellery, the
   crossing of cultural boundaries is one of the more significant features
   of the artform in the early 21st century.

   In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with
   in some cases, hooks or even objects as large as bike bars being placed
   into the recipient's skin. Although this procedure is often carried out
   by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during
   religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture.
   Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or
   spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in
   conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This
   practise is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some
   couples have even performed their marriage ceremomy whist being
   suspended by hooks.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewellery"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
