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James Watt

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Astronomers and
physicists; Engineers and inventors

   James Watt
   James Watt

   James Watt ( 19 January 1736 – 19 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor
   and engineer whose improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to
   the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution.

Biography

Early years

   A statue at the James Watt College building marks the site of his
   birthplace.
   A statue at the James Watt College building marks the site of his
   birthplace.

   James Watt was born on 19th of January, 1736 in Greenock, a seaport on
   the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and
   contractor, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, came from a distinguished
   family and was well-educated. Both were Presbyterians and strong
   Covenanters.

   Watt attended school irregularly and instead was mostly schooled at
   home by his mother. He exhibited great manual dexterity, an aptitude
   for mathematics, while Latin and Greek left him cold, and he absorbed
   the legends and lore of the Scottish people.

   When he was seventeen, his mother died and his father's health had
   begun to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for
   a year, then returned to Scotland – to Glasgow – intent on setting up
   his own instrument-making business. However, because he had not served
   at least seven years as an apprentice, the Glasgow Guild of Hammermen
   (any artisans using hammers) blocked his application, despite there
   being no other mathematical instrument-makers in Scotland.

   Watt was saved from this impasse by the professors of the University of
   Glasgow, who offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop
   within the university. It was established in 1757 and one of the
   professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, became Watt's
   friend and mentor.

   In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five
   children, two of whom lived to adulthood. She died in childbirth in
   1773. In 1776 he married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow
   dye-maker, who survived him. She died in 1832.

Steam engine

   Four years after opening his shop, Watt began to experiment with steam
   after his friend, Professor John Robison, called his attention to it.
   At this point Watt had still never seen an operating steam engine, but
   he tried constructing a model. It failed to work satisfactorily, but he
   continued his experiments and began to read everything about it he
   could. He independently discovered the importance of latent heat in
   understanding the engine, which, unknown to him, Black had famously
   discovered some years before. He learned that the University owned a
   model Newcomen engine, but it was in London for repairs. Watt got the
   university to have it returned, and he made the repairs in 1763. It too
   just barely worked, and after much experimentation he showed that about
   80% of the heat of the steam was consumed in heating the cylinder,
   because the steam in it was condensed by an injected stream of cold
   water. His critical insight, to cause the steam to condense in a
   separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature
   of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam, came
   finally in 1765 and he soon had a working model.

   Now came a long struggle to produce a full-scale engine. This required
   more capital, some of which came from Black. More substantial backing
   came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron
   Works, near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership. But the
   principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder. Iron
   workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than machinists, so the
   results left much to be desired. Much capital was spent in pursuing the
   ground-breaking patent, which in those days required an act of
   parliament. Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up
   employment as a surveyor for eight years. Roebuck went bankrupt, and
   Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho foundry works near Birmingham,
   acquired his patent rights. Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful
   partnership ( Boulton & Watt), which lasted for the next twenty-five
   years.

   Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world.
   The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly
   fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson who had developed precision
   boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North
   Wales. Finally, in 1776, the first engines were installed and working
   in commercial enterprises. These first engines were used for pumps and
   produced only reciprocating motion. Orders began to pour in and for the
   next five years Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in
   Cornwall for pumping water out of mines.

   The field of application of the invention was greatly widened only
   after Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the
   piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling.
   Although a crank seemed the logical and obvious solution to the
   conversion Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose
   holder, John Steed, and associates proposed to cross-license the
   external condensor. Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented
   the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781.

   Over the next six years, he made a number of other improvements and
   modifications to the steam engine. A double acting engine, in which the
   steam acted alternately on the two sides of the piston was one. A
   throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal
   governor to keep it from "running away" were very important. He
   described methods for working the steam expansively. A compound engine,
   which connected two or more engines was described. Two more patents
   were granted for these in 1781 and 1782. Numerous other improvements
   that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually
   implemented. One of these included the use of the steam indicator which
   produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against
   its volume, which he kept as a trade secret. Another important
   invention, one of which Watt was most proud of, was the three-bar
   linkage which produced the straight line motion required for the
   cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves
   in a circular arc. This was patented in 1784. These improvements taken
   together produced an engine which was about five times as efficient in
   its use of fuel as the Newcomen engine.

   Because of the danger of exploding boilers and the ongoing issues with
   leaks, Watt was opposed at first to the use of high pressure
   steam--essentially all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric
   pressure.

   In 1794 the partners established Boulton and Watt to exclusively
   manufacture steam engines, and this became a large enterprise. By 1824
   it had produced 1164 steam engines having a total nominal horsepower of
   about 26,000. Boulton proved to be an excellent businessman, and both
   men eventually made fortunes.

Method and personality

   Statue of James Watt at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh
   Statue of James Watt at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh

   Watt was an enthusiastic inventor, with a fertile imagination that
   sometimes got in the way of finishing his works, because he could
   always see "just one more improvement." He was skilled with his hands,
   and was also able to perform systematic scientific measurements that
   could quantify the improvements he made and produce a greater
   understanding of the phenomenon he was working with.

   Watt was a gentleman, greatly respected by other prominent men of the
   Industrial Revolution. He was an important member of the Lunar Society,
   and was a much sought after conversationalist and companion, always
   interested in expanding his horizons. He was a rather poor businessman,
   and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who
   sought to utilize the steam engine. Until he retired, he was always
   much concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a
   worrier. His personal relationships with his friends and partners were
   always congenial and long-lasting.

Later years

   Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and
   partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was
   transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Boulton and James Watt Jr.
   William Murdoch was made a partner and the firm prospered.

   Watt continued to invent other things before and during his
   semi-retirement. He invented a new method of measuring distances by
   telescope, a device for copying letters, improvements in the oil lamp,
   a steam mangle and a machine for copying sculptures.

   He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he
   purchased an estate in Wales, which he much improved.

   He died in his home "Heathfield" in Handsworth, Staffordshire on 19
   August 1819 at the age of 83.

Controversy

   As with many major inventions, there is some dispute as to whether Watt
   was the original sole inventor of some of the numerous inventions he
   patented. There is no dispute, however, that he was the sole inventor
   of his most important invention, the separate condenser. It was his
   practice (from around the 1780s) to pre-empt others' ideas which were
   known to him by filing patents with the intention of securing credit
   for the invention for himself, and ensuring that no one else was able
   to practice it. As he states in a letter to Boulton of 17 August 1784:

          "I have given such descriptions of engines for wheel carriages
          as I could do in the time and space I could allow myself; but it
          is very defective and can only serve to keep other people from
          similar patents".

   Some argue that his prohibitions on his employee William Murdoch from
   working with high pressure steam on his steam locomotive experiments
   delayed its development. Watt, with his partner Matthew Boulton,
   battled against rival engineers such as Jonathan Hornblower who tried
   to develop engines which did not fall foul of his patents.

   Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in
   1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims
   to have been invented by his employee, William Murdoch. Watt himself
   described the provenance of the invention of the sun and planet gear in
   a letter to Boulton from Watt dated January 3, 1782:

          "I have tried a model of one of my old plans of rotative engines
          revived and executed by W. M(urdock) and which merits being
          included in the specification as a fifth method..."

   The patent was never contested by Murdoch, who remained an employee of
   Boulton and Watt for most of his life, and Boulton and Watt's firm
   continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines,
   even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794.

Legacy

   James Watt's improved steam engine transformed the Newcomen engine,
   which had hardly changed for fifty years, into a source of power that
   transformed the world of work, and was the key innovation that brought
   forth the Industrial Revolution. The importance of the invention can
   hardly be overstated--it gave us the modern world. A key feature of it
   was that it brought the engine out of the remote coal fields into
   factories where many mechanics, engineers, and even tinkerers were
   exposed to its virtues and limitations. It was a platform for
   generations of inventors to improve. It was clear to many that higher
   pressures produced in improved boilers would produce engines having
   even higher efficiency, and would lead to the revolution in
   transportation that was soon embodied in the locomotive and steamboat.
   It made possible the construction of new factories that, since they
   were not dependent on water power, could work the year round, and could
   be placed almost anywhere. Work was moved out of the cottages,
   resulting in economies of scale. Capital could work more efficiently,
   and manufacturing productivity greatly improved. It made possible the
   cascade of new sorts of machine tools that could be used to produce
   better machines, including that most remarkable of all of them, the
   Watt steam engine.
   Watt celebrated as a statue in Chamberlain Square, outside Birmingham
   Central Library
   Watt celebrated as a statue in Chamberlain Square, outside Birmingham
   Central Library

Honours

   Watt was a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Royal
   Society of London. He was a member of the Batavian Society, and one of
   only eight Foreign Associates of the French Academy of Sciences.

Remembrance

   Watt was buried in the grounds of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, in
   Birmingham. Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that
   his tomb is now buried inside the church. A statue of him, Boulton and
   Murdoch is in Birmingham, as are two other statues of him alone, one in
   Chamberlain Square, the other outside the Law Courts. He is also
   remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour, both
   in Birmingham. An extensive archive of his papers is held at Birmingham
   Central Library. Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum,
   commemorating the work of both men.

   The location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a
   statue, close to his birthplace. Several locations and street names in
   Greenock recall him, most notably the Watt Memorial Library, which was
   begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed
   as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the
   James Watt College). Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the
   library now also houses the local history collection and archives of
   Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule.
   Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow
   and Princes Street, Edinburgh.

   The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to
   include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The
   Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs. The Heriot-Watt
   University near Edinburgh was at one time the "Watt Institution and
   School of Arts" named in his memory, then merged with George Heriot's
   Hospital for needy orphans and the name was changed to Heriot-Watt
   College. Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science
   and technology) are named after him.

   The huge painting James Watt contemplating the steam engine by James
   Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland.

   Watt was ranked first, tying with Edison, among 229 significant figures
   in the history of technology by Charles Murray's survey of
   historiometry presented in his book Human Accomplishments. Watt was
   ranked 22nd in Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures
   in history.

   The SI unit of power, the watt, is named after him, as are over 50
   roads or streets in the UK.

   A colossal statue of him by Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey,
   and on this cenotaph the inscription reads:

          NOT TO PERPETUATE A NAME,
          WHICH MUST ENDURE WHILE THE PEACEFUL ARTS FLOURISH,
          BUT TO SHOW
          THAT MANKIND HAVE LEARNED TO HONOUR THOSE
          WHO BEST DESERVE THEIR GRATITUDE,
          THE KING,
          HIS MINISTERS, AND MANY OF THE NOBLES
          AND COMMONERS OF THE REALM
          RAISED THIS MONUMENT TO

          JAMES WATT

          WHO DIRECTING THE FORCE OF AN ORIGINAL GENIUS
          EARLY EXERCISED IN PHILOSOPHIC RESEARCH
          TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF
          THE STEAM-ENGINE
          ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY
          INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN
          AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE
          AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE
          AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD
          BORN AT GREENOCK MDCCXXXVI
          DIED AT HEATHFIELD IN STAFFORDSHIRE MDCCCXIX

Books about Watt

     * Dickenson, H. W., James Watt: Craftsman and Engineer Cambridge
       University Press (1935).
     * J. P. Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of
       James Watt (London, 1854).
     * J. P. Muirhead, Life of Watt (London, 1858).
     * Samuel Smiles, Lives of the Engineers, (London, 1861-62, new
       edition, five volumes, 1905).
     * "Some Unpublished Letters of James Watt" in Journal of Institution
       of Mechanical Engineers (London, 1915).
     * Carnegie, Andrew, James Watt University Press of the Pacific (2001)
       (Reprinted from the 1913 ed.), ISBN 0-89875-578-6.
     * Hills, Rev. Dr. Richard L., James Watt, Vol 1, His time in
       Scotland, 1736-1774 (2002); Vol 2, The years of toil, 1775-1785;
       Vol 3 Triumph through adversity 1785-1819. Landmark Publishing Ltd,
       ISBN 1-84306-045-0.
     * Marsden, Ben. Watt's Perfect Engine Columbia University Press (New
       York, 2002) ISBN 0-231-13172-0.

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