   #copyright

Islam

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements,
traditions and organizations

                  Islam

   Beliefs

   Allah - Oneness of God
   Muhammad · Prophets of Islam
   Practices

   Profession of Faith · Prayer
   Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage

   History & Leaders

   Timeline of Muslim history
   Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba
   Rashidun Caliphs · Shia Imams

   Texts & Laws

   Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith
   Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Tasawwuf

   Major branches
   Sunni · Shia

   Culture & Society

   Academics · Art · Science
   Philosophy · Architecture
   Mosques · Calendar · Festivals
   Demographics · Women · Politics

   See also

   Criticism of Islam ·  Islamophobia
   Glossary of Islamic terms

   Islam (Arabic: الإسلام; al-'islām ) is a monotheistic religion
   originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab
   religious and political figure. It is the second-largest religion in
   the world today, with an estimated 1.4 billion adherents spread across
   the globe known as Muslims. Linguistically, Islam means "submission",
   referring to the total surrender of one's self to God (Arabic: الله,
   Allāh), and a Muslim is "one who submits (to God)".

   Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad and that
   Muhammad is God's final prophet. The Qur'an and the traditions of
   Muhammad in the Sunnah are regarded as the fundamental sources of
   Islam. Muslims do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion
   but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Ibrahim
   and other prophets whose messages had become corrupted over time (or
   according to some authorities only misinterpreted). Like Judaism,
   Christianity, and the Bahá'í Faith, Islam is an Abrahamic religion.

   Islam is not only a faith, but also a culture. Being the faith of a
   quarter of humanity, one can find a diversity of cultures, peoples who
   adhere to Islam, and the areas they inhabit, all of which make Islam a
   global culture. Today, Muslims may be found throughout the world,
   particularly in the Middle East and North, West and East Africa. Some
   of the most populous majority-Muslim countries are in South and
   Southeast Asia. Other concentrations are found in Central Asia. Only
   about 20 percent of Muslims originate from Arab countries. Islam is the
   second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,
   such as France, which has the largest Muslim population in Western
   Europe, and the United Kingdom.
   Table of contents

Etymology and meaning

   The word "'islām" derives from the triconsonantal Arabic root
   sīn-lām-mīm, which carries the basic meaning of safety and peace. The
   verbal noun "islām" is formed from the verb aslama, a derivation of
   this root which means to accept, surrender, or submit; thus, Islam
   effectively means submission to and acceptance of God. The legislative
   meaning is to submit to God by singling him out in all acts of worship,
   to yield obediently to him and to disassociate oneself from polytheism.

   The word 'islām takes a number of different meanings in the Qur'an. In
   some verses ( ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is
   stressed, for example: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his
   breast to Islam". Other verses establish the connection between islām
   and dīn (usually translated as "religion"), and assert that only the
   surrender of one's self to God can render unto Him the worship which is
   His due: "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have
   completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your
   religion." The final category of verses describe Islam as an action (of
   returning to God), more than simply a verbal affirmation.

Beliefs

   Muslims believe that God revealed His final message to humanity through
   the Islamic prophet Muhammad (c. 570 - July 6, 632) via the angel
   Gabriel. Muhammad is considered to have been God's final prophet, the "
   Seal of the Prophets". The Qur'an is believed by Muslims to be the
   revelations Muhammad received in 23 years of his preaching. Muslims
   hold that the message of Islam - submission to the will of the one God
   - is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God
   to humanity since Adam. Muslims believe that "Islam is the eternal
   religion, described in the Qur'an as 'the primordial nature upon which
   God created mankind.' Further the Qur'an states that the proper name
   Muslim was given by Abraham. As a historical phenomenon, however, Islam
   was originated in Arabia in early 7th century." Islamic texts depict
   Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the
   teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians " People of
   the Book," and distinguishes them from polytheists. However, Muslims
   believe that the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat ( Torah),
   and the Injil ( Gospels), had become distorted as indicated in the
   Qur'an, either in interpretation, textually, or both.

   Islamic belief is composed of six main aspects: belief in God; His
   revelations; His angels; His messengers; the " Day of Judgement"; and
   the divine decree.

God

   Allah in Arabic using Arabic script and calligraphy
   Allah in Arabic using Arabic script and calligraphy

   The fundamental concept in Islam is the Oneness of God or tawhīd:
   monotheism which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The Oneness
   of God is the first of Islam's five pillars, expressed by the Shahadah
   (testification). By declaring the Shahadah, a Muslim attests to the
   belief that there are no gods but God, and that Muhammad is God's
   messenger.

   In Arabic, God is called Allāh. The most probable theory is that the
   word is etymologically derived from a contraction of the Arabic words
   al- (the) and ʾilāh (deity, masculine form) — al-ilāh meaning "the
   God". Another theory traces the etymology of the word to the Aramaic
   Alāhā. According to F. E. Peters, "The Qur'an insists, Muslims believe,
   and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same
   God as the Jews( 29:46). The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who
   covenanted with Abraham". Peters states that the Qur'anic portrayal of
   God is more powerful, more remote than Yahweh. It is also depicted as a
   universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites. Allāh is
   also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people in reference to
   God. The usage of the definite article in Allah linguistically
   indicates the divine unity. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine
   concerning the trinity of God, seeing it as akin to polytheism.

   God is described in a sura of the Qu'ran as: "...God, the One and Only;
   God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And
   there is none like unto Him."

Qur'an

   The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi.
   The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi.

   The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word
   of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been
   called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran. The word
   Qur'an means "recitation". Although the Qur'an is referred to as a
   "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an", they are
   usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic - the words
   themselves - rather than to the printed work or any translation of it.
   Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad
   by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the
   years 610 and his death on July 6, 632. Modern Western academics
   generally hold that the Qur'an of today is not very different from the
   words Muslims believe to have been revealed to Muhammad, as the search
   for other variants has not yielded any differences of great
   significance. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for
   historical Muhammad is more the lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic
   Arabia.The Qur'an occupies a status of primacy in Islamic
   jurisprudence, and Muslims consider it a definitive source of guidance
   to live in accordance to the will of God. To interpret the Qu'ran,
   Muslims use a form of exegesis known as tafsir.

   Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing
   as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Worn out Qur'ans are not
   discarded as wastepaper, but are typically sunk in the sea. Many
   Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original
   Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers.
   Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as a hafiz.
   Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the
   original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human
   effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages,
   because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least)
   because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the
   original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on
   the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an
   itself. Almost all modern, printed versions of the Qur'an are parallel
   text ones, with a vernacular translation facing the original Arabic
   text.

Muhammad

   Arabic calligraphy reading "Muhammad, Messenger of Allah".
   Arabic calligraphy reading "Muhammad, Messenger of Allah".

   Muhammad ( 570— 632), also Mohammed, Mohamet, and other variants was an
   Arab religious and political leader who propagated the religion of
   Islam. Muslims consider him the greatest prophet of God, and the last
   recipient of divine revelation. He is viewed not as the founder of a
   new religion, but as the last in a series of prophets, restoring the
   original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others which had
   become corrupted. Muhammad had maintained a reputation as an honest and
   trustworthy member of the community, "al-Amin". For the last 23 years
   of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving
   revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the
   Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his followers. During this time,
   Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, including his relatives and
   tribal associates, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some
   people converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were subsequently
   persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. Muslims believe that
   during his stay in Mecca, he was taken at night by Gabriel to
   Jerusalem, where he ascended to heaven, as elucidated in the Qur'an.
   After 13 years of preaching in Mecca, Muhammad and the Muslims
   performed the hijra (emigration) to the city of Medina. There, with the
   Medinan converts ( Ansar) and the Meccan migrants ( Muhajirun),
   Muhammad soon established political and religious authority. By 629, he
   was able to march unto his home town in the bloodless ' Conquest of
   Mecca'. And by the time of his death in 632, Muhammad had succeeded in
   bringing the Arabian peninsula under the banner of Islam. Despite his
   exalted staus in Muslim thought, Muhammad is insisted to have been no
   more than human.

Sunnah

   Sunnah literally means "trodden path" and it refers, in common usage,
   to the normative example of Muhammad, as preserved in traditions known
   as hadith ("reports") about his speech, his actions, his acquiescence
   to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics.
   By the time of the classical Muslim jurist, ash-Shafi'i (d. 820), the
   Sunnah represented an important facet in Islamic law, where any action
   described by this term would be highly recommended for the Muslim to
   perform. This was a notion supported by Qur'anic verses such as: "Ye
   have indeed in the Messenger of Allah a beautiful pattern (of
   conduct)..." The Sunnah also became an key exponent in clarifying
   understanding of the Qur'an. As such, the authentic hadiths are
   considered by Muslims to be an authoritative source of revelation
   (second only to the Qur'an) by virtue of its representing divine
   guidance as implemented by Muhammad.

Angels

   The belief in angels is central to the religion of Islam, beginning
   with the belief that the Qur'an was dictated to Muhammad by the chief
   of all angels, Gabriel. Angels are thus the ministers of God, and some
   are the agents of revelation in Islam. According to Islamic belief,
   angels were created from light. According to the Qur'an, angels do not
   possess free will. They are completely devoted to the worship of God
   and carry out certain functions on His command, such as recording every
   human being's actions, placing a soul in a newborn child, maintaining
   certain environmental conditions of the planet (such as nurturing
   vegetation and distributing the rain) and taking the soul at the time
   of death. Angels are described as in the Qur'an as "messengers with
   wings,- two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He
   pleases..." They can assume human form, but only in appearance. As
   such, angels do not eat, procreate or commit sin as humans do.

Resurrection and judgement

   A fundamental tenet of Islam is belief in the "Day of Resurrection",
   yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn - "Day of Judgement";
   as-sā`a - "the Last Hour"). The trials and tribulations preceding and
   during Qiyāmah are explained meticulously in both the Qur'an and the
   hadith, as well as in the commentaries of Islamic scholars such as
   al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and al-Bukhari. Muslims believe that God will
   hold every human, Muslim and non-Muslim, accountable for his or her
   deeds at a preordained time unknown to man. The archangel Israfil, will
   sound a horn sending out a "blast of truth". Traditions say Muhammad
   will be the first to be brought back to life. Bodily resurrection is
   much insisted upon in the Qur'an, which challenges the pre-Islamic
   Arabian concept of death. Resurrection is followed by the gathering of
   mankind, culminating in their judging by God.

   According to the Qur'an, sins that can consign someone to hell include
   lying, dishonesty, corruption, ignoring God or God's revelations,
   denying the resurrection, refusing to feed the poor, indulgence in
   opulence and ostentation, the economic exploitation of others, and
   social oppression. The punishment is in Qur'an contrasted not with
   release but with mercy Islam views paradise as a place of joy and
   bliss. Despite the graphical descriptions of the physical pleasures,
   there are clear references to a greater joy that exceeds the pleasures
   of flesh: The acceptance from God, or good pleasure of God (ridwan).
   Islam also has a strong mystical tradition which places these heavenly
   delights in the context of the ecstatic awareness of God.

Divine decree

   Another fundamental tenet in Islam is the belief in divine
   preordainment (al-qadaa wa'l-qadr ), meaning that God has full
   knowledge and decree over all that occurs, as elaborated in Qur'anic
   verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has
   decreed for us: He is our protector'...." Muslims believe that nothing
   in the world can happen, good or evil, except that it has been
   preordained and permitted by God. Man possesses free will in the sense
   that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and thus
   retains responsibility over his actions. Muslims also believe that
   although God has decreed all things, the evil and calamities that are
   decreed are done so as a trial, or may possess a later benefit not yet
   apparent due to mankind's lack of comprehension, and as such does not
   suggest absence of God's indignation against evil and disbelief.
   According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed is written in
   "al-Lawh al-Mahfuz", the "Preserved Tablet."

Five Pillars of Islam

   The Five Pillars of Islam is the term given to what are understood
   among many Muslims to be the five core aspects of Islam. Shi'a Muslims
   accept the Five Pillars, but also add several other practices to form
   the Practices of Religion.

Shahadah

   Flag of early Muslims used on the battlefield (named Al-Raya الراية),
   with the Shahadah in white script.
   Flag of early Muslims used on the battlefield (named Al-Raya الراية),
   with the Shahadah in white script.

   The basic creed or tenet of Islam is found in the shahādatān ("twin
   testimonies"): 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna
   muħammadan rasūlu-llāh; "I testify that there is none worthy of worship
   except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." As the
   most important pillar, this testament can be considered a foundation
   for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Ideally, it is the first
   words a new-born will hear, and children are taught to recite and
   understand the shahadah as soon as they are able to understand them.
   Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims must use
   the creed to formally convert to Islam.

Salah

   The second pillar of Islam is salah, the requirement to pray five times
   a day at fixed times. Each salah is performed facing towards the Kaaba
   in Mecca. In the very early days of Islam, when it was based primarily
   in Mecca, Muslims offered salah facing towards Jerusalem, but then God
   revealed a verse of the Qu'ran to Muhammad, telling the Muslims to pray
   facing Mecca from then on.
   Muslims performing salah (prayer).
   Muslims performing salah (prayer).

   Salah is intended to focus the mind on God; it is a personal
   communication with God, expressing gratitude and worship. According to
   the Qur'an ( 29:40) the benefit of prayer "restrains [one] from
   shameful and evil deeds". Salah is compulsory but there are
   flexibilities under certain circumstances. For example in the case of
   sickness or lack of space, a worshipper can offer salah while sitting,
   or even lying, and the prayer can be shortened when travelling.

   The salah must be performed in the Arabic language to the best of each
   worshipper's ability (although any du'a, or extra prayers said
   afterwards need not be in Arabic), and the lines are to be recited by
   heart, although beginners may use written aids. The worshipper's body
   and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be cleansed. All
   prayers should be conducted within the prescribed time period or waqt
   (Arabic for 'time') and with the appropriate number of units (
   raka'ah). While the prayers may be made at any point within the waqt,
   it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the call
   to prayer is heard.

Zakat

   Zakat, or alms-giving, is giving charity to the poor and needy by able
   Muslims, based on the wealth that one has accumulated. It is a personal
   responsibility intended to ease economic hardship for others and
   eliminate inequality. It consists spending a fixed portion of one's
   wealth for the poor or needy, including people whose hearts need to be
   reconciled, slaves, those in debt, and travelers. A Muslim may also
   donate an additional amount as an act of voluntary charity, known as
   sadaqah, in order to achieve additional divine reward.

   There are two main types of zakat: zakat on traffic, which is a per
   head payment equivalent to cost of around 2.25 kilograms of the main
   food of the region paid during the month of Ramadan by the head of a
   family for himself and his dependents, and zakât on wealth, which
   covers money made in business, savings, income, crops, livestock, gold,
   minerals, hidden treasures unearthed, and so on.

   The payment of zakât is an obligation for all Muslims. In current usage
   it is interpreted as a 2.5% levy on most valuables and savings held for
   a full lunar year, if the total value is more than a basic minimum
   known as nisab (3 ounces or 87.48 g of gold). At present (as of 16
   October 2006), nisab is approximately US $1,750 or an equivalent amount
   in any other currency.

Sawm

   Sawm, or fasting, is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan, as
   enjoined in the Qur'an:

     O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed
     to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint — Qur'an
     2:183

   Muslims traditionally break their fasts in Ramadan with dates, as was
   the practice (Sunnah) of Muhammad.
   Muslims traditionally break their fasts in Ramadan with dates, as was
   the practice ( Sunnah) of Muhammad.

   Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse from dawn
   to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other
   sins. The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness to God as
   well as remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also
   expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by
   refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, harsh language,
   gossip, and to try to get along with each other better than normal. All
   obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. The fast
   is an exacting act of deeply personal worship in which Muslims seek a
   raised level of closeness to God. The act of fasting is said to
   redirect the heart away from worldly activities and its purpose being
   to cleanse your inner soul, and free it of harm.

   Fasting during Ramadan is not obligatory for several groups for whom it
   would be excessively problematic. Children before the onset of puberty
   are not required to fast, though some do. Also some small children fast
   for half a day instead of a whole day so they get used to fasting.
   However, if puberty is delayed, fasting becomes obligatory for males
   and females after a certain age. According to Qur'an, if fasting would
   be dangerous to people's health, such as to people with an illness or
   medical condition, or elderly people, they are excused. Diabetics and
   nursing or pregnant women are usually not expected to fast. According
   to hadith, observing the Ramadan fast is not allowed for menstruating
   women. Other individuals for whom it is usually considered acceptable
   not to fast are those in battle, and travelers who intended to spend
   fewer than five days away from home. If one's condition preventing
   fasting is only temporary, one is required to make up for the days
   missed after the month of Ramadan is over and before the next Ramadan
   arrives. If one's condition is permanent or present for an extended
   amount of time, one may make up for the fast by feeding a needy person
   for every day missed.

Hajj

   The hajj to the Kaaba in Mecca is an important practice for Muslims to
   perform
   The hajj to the Kaaba in Mecca is an important practice for Muslims to
   perform

   The Hajj is a pilgrimage that occurs during the Islamic month of Dhu
   al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford
   to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in
   his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is around ten kilometers from
   Mecca he wears ihram consisting of two white sheets. Some of the ritual
   of Hajj are walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black
   Stone, running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah,
   visiting holy places and sacrificing an animal in commemoration of
   Ibrahim's sacrifice. Furthermore, it includes throwing seven stones at
   each of the three pillars symbolizing devil at Mina and cutting (some
   or all) head’s hairs.

   The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community. For
   some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. Islamic teachers say
   that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means
   to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine
   his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to
   constant striving for self-improvement.

Islamic law

   Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet)
   Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet)

   The sharia (literally meaning: "the path leading to the watering
   place") is Islamic law, determined by traditional Islamic scholarship
   and systematized during the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era. In
   Islam, Shariah is viewed as the expression of the divine will, the
   total and unqualified submission to which is considered the fundamental
   tenet of Islam. It "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent
   upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief." The Qur'an and the
   sunnah are the basic sources of Islamic jurisprudence, or fiqh. The
   Qur'an in 80 verses strictly deals with legal matters but it is not a
   comprehensive legal code. The jurist Imam Shafi'i in contrast with Imam
   Malik and the Hanafi, put a lot of stress on sunnah causing a great
   activity among Muslims to collect and classify the traditions in early
   8th century. Qiyas (analogical reasoning) and Ijma (unanimous agreement
   by the qualified scholars) are generally regarded as the third and
   fourth sources of Sharia, but have been contested by some scholars. The
   doctrine of Ijma had two major effects: "It served first as a
   permissive principle to admit the validity of variant opinions as
   equally probable attempts to define the Shari'ah. Second, it operated
   as a restrictive principle to ratify the status quo; for once the ijma'
   had cast an umbrella authority not only over those points that were the
   subject of a consensus but also over existing variant opinions, to
   propound any further variant was to contradict the infallible ijma' and
   therefore tantamount to heresy...Ijma' set the final seal of rigidity
   upon the doctrine, and from the 10th century onward independent
   juristic speculation ceased. In the Arabic expression, "the door of
   ijtihad was closed." Henceforth jurists were muqallids, or imitators."

   Shi'a jurisprudence holds that hadith is secondary to the Qur'an,
   disregarding without further inquiries those hadith that contradict or
   abrogate Qur'anic verdicts. Also, qiyas and Ijma are not used as tools,
   whereas logic is used as a tool. In contrast to Sunni's, Shi'a only
   follow the Ahl al-Bayt, or family of Muhammad with regards to fiqh,
   outright rejecting the views of those Muslims who fought with the Ahl
   al-Bayt.

   Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from broad topics of governance
   and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living.
   Islamic laws that were covered expressly in the Qur'an were referred to
   as hudud laws and include specifically the five crimes of theft,
   highway robbery, intoxication, adultery and falsely accusing another of
   adultery, each of which has a prescribed "hadd" punishment that cannot
   be forgone or mitigated. The Qur'an also details laws of inheritance,
   marriage, restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for
   fasting, charity, and prayer. However, the prescriptions and
   prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies.
   Islamic scholars, the ulema, have elaborated systems of law on the
   basis of these broad rules, supplemented by the hadith reports of how
   Muhammad and his companions interpreted them.

   Most countries that have a majority Muslim population declare that
   their constitutions and laws are founded upon sharia. An exception is
   Turkey. Countries incorporate provisions from sharia into their
   constitutions and laws to varying extents and there are also
   differences arising from the existence of different Islamic
   denominations and schools of law. As Islam has spread to non Arabic
   speaking countries such as Iran, Indonesia, Great Britain, and the
   United States, not all Muslims understand the Qur'an in its original
   Arabic. Thus, when Muslims are divided in how to handle situations,
   they seek the assistance of a mufti, an Islamic judge who can offer
   them advice based on the sharia.

Community

Mosques

   The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca as it exists today
   The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca as it exists today

   A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims. Muslims often refer to the
   mosque by its Arabic name, masjid. The word "mosque" in English refers
   to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship, although there
   is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque
   and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jami), which has more
   community and social amenities. The primary purpose of the mosque is to
   serve as a place of prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are also for their
   importance to the Muslim community as meeting place and a place of
   study. They have developed significantly from the open-air spaces that
   were the Quba Mosque and Masjid al-Nabawi in the seventh century.
   Today, most mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls,
   demonstrating Islamic architecture.

   According to Islamic beliefs, the first mosque in the world was the
   Kaaba, which was built by Abraham on an order from God. When Muhammad
   lived in Mecca, he viewed Kaaba as his first and principal mosque and
   performed prayers there together with his followers. Even when the
   pagan Arabs performed their rituals inside the Kaaba, Muhammad held the
   Kaaba in very high esteem. When Muhammad conquered Mecca in 630, he
   converted the Kaaba into a mosque, which has since become known as the
   Masjid al-Haram, or Sacred Mosque and destroyed all idols that were
   worshipped by the Pagan Arabs. The Masjid al-Haram was significantly
   expanded and improved in the early centuries of Islam in order to
   accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either lived in the
   area or made the annual Hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, before it
   acquired its present shape in 1577 in the reign of the Ottoman sultan
   Selim II.

   The first thing Muhammad did upon arriving with his followers near
   Medina after the emigration from Mecca in 622 was build the Quba Mosque
   in a village outside Medina. Today, for the majority of Muslims Masjid
   al-Haram in Mecca, the Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina and Masjid al-Aqsa in
   Jerusalem are considered the three holiest sites in Islam.

Ethics

   Islamic ethics, historically, took shape only gradually and was finally
   established in 5th/11th century. It was eventually shaped as a
   successful amalgamation of pre-Islamic Arabian tradition, the Qur'anic
   teaching and non-Arabic elements (mainly of Persian and Greek origins)
   embedded in or integrated with a general-Islamic structure. Although
   Muhammad's preaching produced a "radical change in moral values based
   on the sanctions of the new religion, and fear of God and of the Last
   Judgment", however the tribal practice of Arabs didn't die out. Later
   Muslim scholars expanded the religious ethic of the Qur'an and Hadith
   in immense details.

Customs and behavioural laws

   Practitioners of Islam are generally taught to follow some specific
   customs in their daily lives. Most of these customs can be traced back
   to Abrahamic traditions in pre-Islamic Arabian society. Due to
   Muhammad's sanction or tacit approval of such practices, these customs
   are considered to be Sunnah (practices of Muhammad as part of the
   religion) by the Ummah (Muslim nation). They include customs such as
   saying Bismillah (in the name of God) before eating and drinking and
   then using the right hand for the purpose, saying As-Salamu Alaykum
   (peace be to you) when meeting someone and answering with Wa
   alaykumus-Salam (and peace be to you), saying Alhamdulillah (praise be
   to God) when sneezing and responding with Yarhamukallah (may God have
   mercy on you), and similarly saying the Adhan (prayer call) in the
   right ear of a newborn and the Iqama in his/her left.

   In the sphere of Islamic hygiene, it includes several types of hair
   removal (clipping the moustache, shaving the pubic hair, removing
   underarm hair), cutting nails, and circumcising the male offspring;
   cleaning the nostrils, the mouth, and the teeth; specific ways of
   cleaning the body after urination and defecation, abstention from
   sexual relations during menstruation and the puerperal discharge, and a
   ceremonial bath ( ghusl) after menstruation, childbirth, or sexual
   intercourse. Islamic burial rituals include the funeral prayer of the
   bathed and enshrouded dead body in coffin cloth and burying it in a
   grave.

   Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet. Food prohibitions
   include swine, blood, carrion, all intoxicants including alcohol, and
   animals slaughtered in the name of someone other than God. All meat
   must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a
   Muslim, Jew, or Christian. Food permissible for Muslims is known as
   halal food.

Islamic calendar

   Eid prayers on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi Mosque,
   Pakistan. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic
   calender.
   Eid prayers on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi Mosque,
   Pakistan. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic
   calender.

   The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra, or
   migration from Mecca to Medina of Muhammad and his followers because it
   was regarded as a turning point in the fortunes of Muhammad's movement.
   It is reported it was caliph Umar who chose this incident to mark the
   year 1, AH (Anno Hegira) of the Islami calendar corresponding to AD 622
   or 622 CE, depending on the notation preferred (see Common Era, Anno
   Domini). It is a lunar calendar, but differs from other such calendars
   (e.g. the Celtic calendar) in that it omits intercalary months, being
   synchronized only with lunations, but not with the solar year,
   resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. Therefore, Islamic dates
   cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622
   years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar,
   which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in
   the Gregorian calendar.

Festivals

   The most important feasts in Islam sanctioned by Sunnah are Eid Al-Fitr
   (عيد الفطر) on the 1^st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting
   month Ramadan, and Eid Al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10^th of Dhu
   al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca. Other Islamic
   holidays include Muhammad's birthday (Al-Mawlid Al-Nabawwi), and the
   anniversary of the day Muslims believe he experienced a miraculous
   journey to Jerusalem and ascended to Heaven (Al-isra wa-l-miraj). Shia
   Muslims also celebrate the anniversary of the day they believe Muhammad
   declared Ali as his successor (Eid Al-ghadir).

Jihad

   Jihad is literally struggle in the way of God and is sometimes referred
   to as the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official
   status as such. Within the realms of Islamic jurisprudence, jihad
   usually refers to military exertion against non-Muslim combatants. In
   broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and
   non-violent meanings. It can refer to striving to live a moral and
   virtuous life, to spreading and defending Islam, and to fighting
   injustice and oppression, among other usages.

   The word "jihad" is often wrongly translated as "Holy War." The primary
   aim of jihad is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force,
   but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. Muslim
   scholars condemned secular wars as an evil rooted in humanity's
   venegeful nature.In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the
   rules associated with armed warfare are covered at great length. Such
   rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well
   as not damaging cultivated or residential areas. More recently, modern
   Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that
   Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and
   Islam. Although some Islamic scholars have differered on the
   implementation of Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the
   concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution
   and oppression. Some Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad regarded
   the inner struggle for faith a greater Jihad than even fighting [by
   force] in the way of God.

History

Early years and the establishment of the Rashidun caliphate

   Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of
   Muhammad, who united the many tribes of Arabia under Islamic law. With
   Muhammad's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who
   would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute
   flaring between the Medinese Ansar and the Meccan Muhajirun as to who
   would undertake this task, Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion
   of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr: Muhammad's intimate friend and
   collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the
   first caliph, literally "successor", leader of the community of Islam.

   Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge the recent defeat by Byzantine
   (also known as Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although a more potent
   threat soon surfaced in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in
   revolt after having learned of the death of Muhammad. Some of these
   tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other
   tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly
   declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as
   the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".

   Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the
   caliph, and after him, Uthman ibn al-Affan, and then Ali ibn Abi Talib.
   These four are known as the "khulafa rashidūn" (" Rightly Guided
   Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded
   greatly. The decades of warring between the neighboring Persian and
   Byzantine empires had rendered both sides weakened and exhausted. Not
   only that, it had also caused them to underestimate the strength of the
   growing new power, and the Arabs' superior military horsemanship. This,
   coupled with the precipitation of internal strife within Byzantium and
   its exposure to a string of barbarian invasions, made conditions
   extremely favorable for the Muslims. Exploitation of these weaknesses
   enabled the Muslims to conquer the lands of Syria and Palestine (634—
   640), Egypt ( 639— 642); and, towards the east, the lands of Iraq (
   641), Armenia and Iran ( 642), and even as far as Transoxiana and
   Chinese Turkestan.

Emergence of hereditary caliphates

   Despite the military successes of the Muslims at this time, the
   political atmosphere was not without controversy. With Umar
   assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with
   gradually increasing opposition. He was subsequently accused of
   nepotism, favoritism and of introducing reprehensible religious
   innovations, though in reality the motivations for such charges were
   economic. Like Umar, Uthman too was then assassinated, in 656. Ali then
   assumed the position of caliph, although tensions soon escalated into
   what became the first civil war (the "First Fitna") when numerous
   companions of Muhammad, including Uthman's relative Muawiyah (who was
   assigned by Uthman as governor of Syria) and Muhammad's wife Aisha,
   sought to avenge the slaying of Uthman. Ali's forces defeated the
   latter at the Battle of the Camel, but the encounter with Muawiyah
   proved indecisive, with both sides agreeing to arbitration. Ali
   retained his position as caliph but had been unable to bring
   Mu'awiyah's territory under his command. When Ali was fatally stabbed
   by a Kharijite dissenter in 661, Mu'awiyah was ordained as the caliph,
   marking the start of the hereditary Ummayad caliphate. Under his rule,
   Mu'awiyah was able to conquer much of North Africa, mainly through the
   efforts of Muslim general Uqba ibn Nafi.
   The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750
   The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750

   There was much contention surrounding Mu'awiyah's assignment of his son
   Yazid as successor upon the eve of his death in 680, drawing protest
   from Husayn bin Ali, grandson of Muhammad, and Ibn az-Zubayr, a
   companion of Muhammad. Both led separate and ultimately unsuccessful
   revolts, and Ummayad attempts to pacify them became known as the "
   Second Fitna". Thereafter, the Ummayad dynasty continued rulership for
   a further seventy years (with caliph Umar II's tenure especially
   notable), and were able to conquer the Maghrib ( 699— 705), as well as
   Spain and the Narbonnese Gaul at a similar date.

   The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the Abbasid
   dynasty rose to power in 750, with the conquest of the Mediterranean
   islands including the Balearics and Sicily. The new ruling party had
   been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the
   Ummayads, cultured mainly by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim.
   Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was
   the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge
   History of Islam as its " golden age." This was also the case for
   commerce, industry, the arts and sciences, which prospered especially
   under the rule of Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754— 775), Harun
   al-Rashid (ruled 786— 809), and al-Ma'mun (ruled 809— 813).

Fragmentation

   Interior of the Mezquita (in Cordoba, Spain), a Roman Catholic
   cathedral which was formerly a mosque, the construction of which began
   in 784 under Abd ar-Rahman I, who fled Damascus during the Abbasid
   revolution.
   Interior of the Mezquita (in Cordoba, Spain), a Roman Catholic
   cathedral which was formerly a mosque, the construction of which began
   in 784 under Abd ar-Rahman I, who fled Damascus during the Abbasid
   revolution.

   Baghdad was made the new capital of the caliphate (moved from the
   previous capital, Damascus) due to the importance placed by the
   Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania. It was at this
   time, however, that the caliphate showed signs of fracture and the
   uprising of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been
   killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I,
   was able to flee to Spain and establish an independent caliphate there,
   in 756. In the Maghreb region, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab
   Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to
   recognise the authority of the central caliphate. Aghlabid rule was
   short lived, as they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909.
   By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a new
   capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of
   victory", known today as Cairo). Similar was the case in Persia, where
   the Turkic Ghaznavids managed to snatch power from the Abbasids.
   Whatever temporal power of the Abbasids remained had eventually been
   consumed by the Seljuq Turks (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated
   into mainland Persia), in 1055.

   During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare,
   sometimes by peaceful proselytism. The first stage in the conquest of
   India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193— 1209)
   years later, the area up to the Ganges river had been conquered. In
   sub-Saharan West Africa, it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was
   established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in Kanem starting
   from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at
   the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with
   Mali reached prominence later, in the 13th century.

The Crusades and the Mongol invasions

   Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was
   recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces.
   Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was
   recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces.

   Islamic conquest into Christian Europe spread as far as southern
   France. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines by the Seljuk
   Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Christian Europe, at the
   behest of the Pope, launched a series of Crusades and captured
   Jerusalem. The Muslim general Saladin, however, regained Jerusalem at
   the Battle of Hattin in 1187, also having defeated the Shiite Fatimids
   earlier in 1171 upon which the Ayyubid dynasty had been conceived.

   The wave of Mongol invasions, which had initially commenced in the
   early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan, marked a
   violent end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol Empire had spread rapidly
   throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had
   fallen to them by 1237. With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251,
   sights were set upon the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother,
   Hulegu, was made the head of the Mongol army assigned with the task of
   subduing Baghdad. This was achieved at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258,
   which saw the Abbasids overrun by the superior Mongol army. The last
   Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was
   ransacked and subsequently destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo
   fell shortly afterwards, in 1260. Any prospective conquest of Egypt was
   temporarily delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time.

   With Mongol conquest in the east, the Ayyubid dynasty ruling over Egypt
   had been surpassed by the slave-soldier Mamluks in 1250. This had been
   done through the marriage between Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid
   caliph al-Salih Ayyub, with Mamluk general Aybak. Military prestige was
   at the centre of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the
   confrontations with the Mongol forces. After the assassination of
   Aybak, and the succession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and
   decisively routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260.
   This signalled an adverse shift in fortunes for the Mongols, who were
   again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Homs a few months later,
   and then driven out of Syria altogether. With this, the Mamluks were
   also able to conquer the last of the crusader territories.

Rise of the Ottomans

   Interior of the Ulu Camii, a mosque constructed under the Ottoman
   sultan Beyazid I in Bursa (1396), showing the multiple domes and
   pillars decorated with Islamic calligraphy.
   Interior of the Ulu Camii, a mosque constructed under the Ottoman
   sultan Beyazid I in Bursa ( 1396), showing the multiple domes and
   pillars decorated with Islamic calligraphy.

   The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th
   century, especially after the Mongol invasions in Anatolia. This
   resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known
   as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed
   leadership of one of these principalities ( Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding
   his father Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299,
   Osman I led it to a series of consecutive victories over the Byzantine
   Empire. By 1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicea, the former Byzantine
   capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I.
   Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then
   facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were firmly
   established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended
   to power in the same year, now at the helm of a swiftly growing empire.

   Further growth was brought to a sudden halt, as Bayezid I had been
   captured by Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") in the
   Battle of Ankara in 1402, upon which a turbulent period known as the
   Ottoman Interregnum ensued. This episode was characterized by the
   division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who
   submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of the territories
   recently conquered by the Ottomans regained independent status,
   potential ruin for the Ottoman Empire became apparent. However, the
   empire quickly recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I,
   waged offensive campaigns against his other ruling brothers, thereby
   reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself the new Ottoman sultan in
   1413.

   At around this time the naval fleet of the Ottomans developed
   considerably, such that they were able to challenge Venice,
   traditionally a naval power. Focus was also directed towards
   reconquering the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II
   (ruled 1444— 1446; 1451— 1481), the Ottomans felt strong enough to lay
   siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A decisive factor in
   this siege was the use of firearms and large cannons introduced by the
   Ottomans (adapted from Europe and improved upon), against which the
   Byzantines were unable to compete. The Byzantine fortress finally
   succumbed to the Ottoman invasion in 1453, 54 days into the siege.
   Mehmed II, entering the city victorious, renamed it to Istanbul. With
   its capital conceded to the Ottomans, the rest of the Byzantine Empire
   quickly disintegrated. The future successes of the Ottomans and later
   empires would depend heavily upon the exploitation of gunpowder.

Early modern period

   Islam reached the islands of Southeast Asia through Indian Muslim
   traders near the end of the 13th century. By the mid-15th century,
   Islam had spread from Sumatra to the nearby island of Malacca as well
   as Brunei, and the conversion of the Malaccan ruler to Islam marked the
   start of the Malacca Sultanate. Although the sultanate managed to
   expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief. Portuguese
   forces captured Malacca in 1511 under the naval general Afonso de
   Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, Brunei established itself as the
   centre of Islam in Southeast Asia, while its sultanate remains intact
   even to this day. Throughout areas under its territorial dominance,
   Islam cemented itself within the cultures under the Muslim empire,
   resulting in the gradual conversion of the non-Muslim populations to
   Islam. Such was not entirely the case in Spain, where a series of
   confrontations with the Christian kingdoms ended in the fall of Granada
   in 1492.
   Map of the dynamics in territorial possession on the Safavid frontiers
   during the 16th century.
   Map of the dynamics in territorial possession on the Safavid frontiers
   during the 16th century.

   In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control
   in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, upon the defeat of the
   ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep
   Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I quickly sought to repel
   Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of
   Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt,
   absorbing their territories into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Suleiman I
   (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took
   advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus against the Uzbeks on the
   eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had previously fallen
   under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained
   substantial, with their empire rivalling the Ottomans'. Suleiman I also
   advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 —
   reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a
   Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of
   the Holy Roman Empire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule ( 1520— 1566)
   signified the height of the Ottoman Empire, after which it fell into
   gradual decline.

   Meanwhile, the Delhi sultanate in the Indian subcontinent had been
   destroyed by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526, marking the start of the
   Mughal Empire — its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later,
   and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought a degree of
   instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah,
   through which a string of defeats had been dealt to Humayun,
   significantly weakened the Mughals. Just a year before his death,
   however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories,
   leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later
   known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the
   Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative
   reforms.

Formation of modern nation-states

   By the end of the 19th century, all three Islamic areas of influence
   had declined due to internal conflict and were later destroyed by
   Western cultural influence and military ambitions. Following World War
   I, the remnants of the Ottoman Empire were parceled out as European
   protectorates or spheres of influence. The new states of Iraq, Lebanon,
   Syria, Palestine and Jordan were formed from these protectorates.
   Alongside Arab nationalism the political movement known as Islamism was
   established. Oil reserves were discovered in Muslim-majority countries
   such as Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States. After the second
   world war the state of Israel was established and a long conflict with
   Arab nations ensued. The world economy has become dependent on oil and
   this has enriched some Muslim-majority countries (such as Saudi Arabia
   and the Gulf States) but continuing conflict has prevented other
   countries from benefitting fully from this natural resource.

Islamic civilization

Art and architecture

   Islamic calligraphy on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China.
   Islamic calligraphy on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China.

   The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and
   architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not
   necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited
   by culturally Islamic populations. Islamic art frequently adopts the
   use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as
   arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam
   forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan
   religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some
   Muslim societies, although this is not widespread. Another reason why
   Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence,
   indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by
   arabesque. Arabic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic
   art, and is usually expressed in the form of Qur'anic verses. Two of
   the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts,
   which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides
   of minbars, and so on.

   From between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, the use of glazed
   ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of
   elaborate pottery. Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new
   technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque
   glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the
   8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of
   stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. Other centers
   for innovative ceramic pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat
   (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz
   (from 1470 to 1550).
   Interior view of the dome in the Selimiye Mosque, Edirne.
   Interior view of the dome in the Selimiye Mosque, Edirne.

   Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture,
   particularly that of the mosque. Through it the effect of varying
   cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North
   African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has
   Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or
   in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Persian-style mosques are characterized
   by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches supported
   each by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture
   were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs. The most
   numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey, which obtained
   influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian designs, although Turkish
   architects managed to implement their own style of cupola domes.

   Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered
   repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In
   this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for
   mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs
   include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with
   alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes. The role of domes in
   Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries,
   first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock
   mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj
   Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been
   incorporated into Western architecture.

Philosophy and literature

   One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of
   philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture." Islamic
   philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with
   religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. The Persian
   scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037) had more than 450 books
   attributed to him. His writings were concerned with many subjects, most
   notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook was used as the
   standard text in European universities for centuries. His work on
   Aristotle was a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient
   Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. He often corrected the
   philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. His
   thinking and that of his follower ibn Rushd (Averroes) was incorporated
   into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas
   Aquinas.

Science and technology

   Illustration of medieval Muslim surgical instruments from physician
   Abu'l Qasim al-Zahrawi's 11th century medical encyclopedia: Kitab
   al-Tasrif.
   Illustration of medieval Muslim surgical instruments from physician
   Abu'l Qasim al-Zahrawi's 11th century medical encyclopedia: Kitab
   al-Tasrif.

   Muslim scientists made significant advances in mathematics and
   astronomy. They spread the concept of zero, known in ancient Indian
   mathematics. The mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, from whose name the word
   algorithm derives, contributed significantly to algebra (which is named
   after his book, kitab al-jabr). Recent studies at Harvard University
   sponsored in part by the Harvard's Aga Khan Program for Islamic
   Architecture have noted a similarity between intricate decorative
   tilework in the architecture of 2 medieval mosques and decagonal
   quasicrystal geometry and have suggested a possible use of geometry in
   the design process. The astrolabe and planisphere develloped by the
   Greeks were used in the Islamic world and subsequently brought to
   Europe via Islamic Spain.In technology, the Muslim world adopted
   papermaking from China many centuries before it was known in the West.
   Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given an important
   place in the Qur'an 57:25. The industry was subsequently brought to
   Europe probably from Muslim lands, Hobson states. The knowledge of
   gunpowder was also transmitted from China to Islamic countries via
   which it was later passed to Europe. Knowledge of chemical processes
   (alchemy) and distilling (alcohol) spread to Europe from the Muslim
   world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as
   "refined techniques of distillation, the preparation of medicines, and
   the production of salts." Advances were made in irrigation and farming,
   using technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus
   fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation
   was gradually adopted by the Europeans.

   Muslim physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine,
   including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th
   century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled
   Tashrih al-badan ("Anatomy of the body") which contained comprehensive
   diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or
   in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the
   theory of pulmonary circulation. Abu'l Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as
   Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his
   Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which
   was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical
   schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of
   pharmacology and pharmacy.

Contemporary Islam

Demographics

   Distribution of Islam per country. Green represents a Sunni majority
   and blue represents a Shia majority.
   Distribution of Islam per country. Green represents a Sunni majority
   and blue represents a Shia majority.

   Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population today range between
   900 million and 1.5 billion people. Only 18% of Muslims live in the
   Arab world; 20% are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 30% in the South
   Asian region of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, and the world's largest
   single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in
   Indonesia. There are also significant Muslim populations in China,
   Europe, Central Asia, and Russia.

Modern interpretations

   The term Islamism describes a set of political ideologies derived from
   Islamic fundamentalism. "What distinguishes fundamentalism from
   traditional Islam is the fact that the state, and state power, are
   fundamental to its vision and represent a paramount fact of its
   consciousness. Thus, from a total, integrative, theocentric worldview
   and a God-centered way of life and thought, Islam is transformed into a
   totalitarian, theocratic world order that submits every human situation
   to arbitrary edicts of the state." Islamist terrorism refers to acts of
   terrorism claimed by its supporters and practitioners to be in
   furtherance of the goals of Islam. Its prevalence has heavily increased
   in recent years, and it has become a contentious political issue in
   many nations. The validity of an Islamic justification for these acts
   is contested by some Muslims.

   According to Ziauddin Sardar in Encyclopedia of the Future, although
   Islamic fundamentalism is the most "talked-about" and politicized
   aspect of contemporary Islam, though will be active for at least one
   more decade, but it doesn't have any long-term future for several
   reasons, "largely because as a modern, concocted political dogma, it
   goes against the history and tradition of Islam."

Denominations

   There are a number of Islamic religious denominations, each of which
   has significant theological and legal differences from each other but
   possesses similar essential beliefs. The major schools of thought are
   Sunni and Shi'a; Sufism is generally considered to be a mystical
   inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most
   sources, present estimates indicate that approximately 85% of the
   world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a. There are a
   number of other Islamic sects not mentioned here which constitute a
   minority of Muslims today.

Sunni

   The Sunni are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah
   literally means "principle" or "path." The sunnah, or exemplary
   behaviour of Muhammad is described as a main pillar of Sunni doctrine,
   with the place of hadith having been argued by scholars as part of the
   sunnah. They believe that the first four caliphs (leaders) of the
   Muslim community were the rightful successors to Muhammad. Sunnis hold
   that God has not specified the leaders of the Muslim community after
   Muhammad, and that the leader has to be elected. Sunnis recognize four
   major legal traditions ( madhhabs): Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, and
   Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might
   choose any one that he/she finds agreeable to his/her ideas, but other
   Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by
   introducing innovations (bidah). There are also several orthodox
   theological or philosophical traditions. The more recent Salafi
   movement among Sunnis, adherents of which often refuse to categorize
   themselves under any single legal tradition, sees itself as
   restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original
   sources of Islam.

Shi'a

   Shi'a Muslims, the second-largest branch of Islam, differ from the
   Sunni in rejecting the authority of the first three caliphs as some of
   them believe that the Muslims had no right to elect the leader of the
   Khilafah. They honour sometimes different accounts of Muhammad (
   hadith) and have their own legal tradition which is called Ja'fari
   jurisprudence. The concept of Imamah, or leadership, plays a central
   role in Shi'a doctrine. Shi'a Muslims view the Muslim community as
   primarily a spiritual community. They preferred to use the word "Imam"
   rather than "Caliph" believing that the leader of the Muslim community
   should be a spiritual leader and then a governer. They hold that
   leadership should not be passed down through elections in a caliphate,
   but rather, divinely appointed infallible descendants of Muhammad
   through Ali and his progeny should be given this right as Imams or
   Caliphs. They believe that thier first Imam, Ali ibn Abu Talib, was
   explicitly appointed by Muhammad by divine command.

Sufism

   Sufism is a mystical form of Islam followed by some Muslims within both
   the Sunni and Shi'a sects. Sufis generally believe that following
   Islamic law is only the first step on the path to perfect submission;
   they focus on the internal or more spiritual aspects of Islam, such as
   perfecting one's faith and subduing one's own ego. Ghazali remarked
   that the Sufi life "cannot be learned but only achieved by direct
   experience, ecstasy, and inward transformation." Most Sufi orders, or
   tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a. However, there are
   some that are not easily categorized as either Sunni or Shi'a, such as
   the Bektashi. Sufis are found throughout the Islamic world, from
   Senegal to Indonesia. Sufism has come under criticism by some Muslims
   for what they see as Suffi's apathy and passivity by focusing on the
   after-life, and introduction of innovative beliefs and actions against
   the letter of Islamic law.

Others

   A view of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, a holy
   site in Islam
   A view of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, a holy
   site in Islam

   Another sect which dates back to the early days of Islam is that of the
   Kharijites. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites, which itself
   divided into numerous sects, is the Ibadi sect. Ibadism is
   distinguished from Shiism by its belief that the leader should be
   chosen solely on the basis of his faith, not on the basis of descent,
   and from Sunnism in its rejection of Uthman and Ali and strong emphasis
   on the need to depose unjust rulers. Ibadi Islam is noted for its
   strictness, but, unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard
   major sins as automatically making a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi
   Muslims live in Oman.

   The Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat, or Ahmadis, are another group of related
   Islamic movements, which consider themselves to be a restoration of
   original Islam. The Ahmadis originated in the 19th century in Punjab,
   and are concentrated in Pakistan. The founder of the movement, Mirza
   Ghulam Ahmad, claimed that he was the long-waited mahdi, though not a
   prophet as many of his critics say. Sunni Muslims do not accept the
   Ahmadis as genuinely Islamic because of the claims of its founder
   regarding his status and also the claim that Jesus was not taken up to
   heaven at crucifixion but rather survived it and continued his work on
   earth ending up dying in Kashmir, India.

Islam and other religions

   The Qur'an contains both injunctions to respect other religions, and to
   fight and subdue unbelievers during war. The Qur'an claims that "it was
   restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in
   various, not clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians." (The
   charge of altering the scripture may mean no more than giving false
   interpretations to some passages, though in later Islam it was taken to
   mean that parts of the Bible are corrupt.)

   Until modern times, tolerance in the treatment of non-believers was not
   valued by either Muslims or Christians. The usual definition of
   tolerance in pre-modern times was that: "I am in charge. I will allow
   you some though not all of the rights and privileges that I enjoy,
   provided that you behave yourself according to rules that I will lay
   down and enforce." Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim
   lands, known as dhimmis were allowed to "practice their religion,
   subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal
   autonomy" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of
   property, in return for paying the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on
   free adult males) to Muslims. They had several social and legal
   disabilities. Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The most
   degrading one was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in
   the Qur'an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its
   enforcement was highly erratic. Persecution in the form of violent and
   active repression was rare and atypical. While recognizing the inferior
   status of dhimmis under Islamic rule, Bernard Lewis compares it
   favorably to that of non-Christians or even of heretical Christians in
   medieval Europe. Dhimmis rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced
   compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their
   choice of residence and profession. Most conversions were voluntary and
   happened for various reasons. However, there were some forced
   conversions in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North
   Africa and al-Andalus as well as in Persia.

Related faiths

   The Yazidi, Druze, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim religions either
   emerged out of an Islamic milieu or have certain beliefs in common with
   Islam. Nearly always those religions were also influenced by
   traditional beliefs in the regions where they emerged, but consider
   themselves independent religions with distinct laws and institutions.
   The last two religions no longer have any followers. Sikhism's holy
   book, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains some writings by Muslim figures,
   as well as by Sikh and Hindu saints.

Criticism of Islam

   The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are to be found in
   the writings of Christians who came under the early dominion of the
   Islamic empire. One such Christian was John of Damascus (born c. 676),
   who was familiar with both Islam and Arabic. John claimed an Arian monk
   influenced Muhammad, and lays forth a number of arguments against Islam
   on scriptural and other grounds.

   Some medieval ecclesiastical writers portrayed Muhammad as possessed by
   Satan, a "precursor of the Antichrist" or the Antichrist himself.
   Maimonides, one of the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in
   Jewish history, saw the relation of Islam to Judaism as primarily
   theoretical. Maimonides has no quarrel with the strict monotheism of
   Islam, but finds fault with the practical politics of Muslim regimes.
   Maimonides criticised what he perceived as the lack of virtue in the
   way Muslims rule their societies and relate to one another.

   In recent years, Islam has been the subject of criticism and
   controversy, and is often viewed with considerable negativity in the
   West. Islam, the Qur'an, and Muhammad, have all been subject to both
   criticism and vilification. Carl Ernst has dismissed some of this as a
   product of Islamophobia. and Bernard Lewis and Edward Said criticized
   their western ethnocenterism.

   Notable modern critics include Robert Spencer, who has published many
   best-selling books critical of the religion (such The Politically
   Incorrect Guide to Islam and the Crusades), and Daniel Pipes, Orianna
   Fallaci, and Bat Ye'or. American Evangelical leaders like Pat Robertson
   have also spoken out against Islam. Some critics argue that in Islam
   women have fewer rights than men and that non-Muslims under the dhimmi
   system have fewer rights than Muslims. Both of these groups may also
   find their most basic human rights denied due to severe interpretations
   of Islamic law. According to Freedom House, Saudi Arabia relegates
   women to second-class citizenship. "Women are not treated as equal
   members of society. They may not legally drive cars, and their use of
   public facilities is restricted when men are present. ...Laws
   discriminate against women in a range of matters including family law,
   and a woman's testimony is treated as inferior to a man's in court."

   There is a body of modern Western scholarship about the origins of the
   Qur'an which uses different methods from traditional Islamic exegesis
   and which is perceived by some to be critical of Islam. This includes
   the work of such scholars as John Wansbrough, Dan Thoelting, Patricia
   Crone and Christoph Luxenberg. Luxenberg's conclusions have been cited
   by Ibn Warraq who is prominent as a general critic of Islam.

   Muhammad Mohar Ali says that the Qur'an records the earliest criticisms
   (and responses), examples of which are Muhammad being called a madman
   (e.g. 15:6), a poet (21:5), a kahin soothsayer (69:42), and so on. He
   claims that nothing of importance has been added by later critics.

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