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Isaac Brock

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                                Isaac Brock
   Major General Sir Isaac Brock, portrait by John Wycliffe Lowes Forster
   Born 6 October 1769,
        St Peter Port, Guernsey.
   Died 13 October 1812,
        Queenston Heights, Canada.

   Major-General Sir Isaac Brock KB ( 6 October 1769 – October 13, 1812)
   was a British Major-General and administrator. Brock is best remembered
   as a brilliant leader and strategist for his actions while stationed in
   the Canadian colonies. His efforts earned him a knighthood, accolades,
   and the moniker The Hero of Upper Canada.

   Brock was assigned to Canada in 1802, and became responsible for
   defending the territory from the United States during the War of 1812.
   While many in Canada and in Britain believed war could be averted, he
   began readying the army and militia for what was to come. When war
   broke out, the populace was prepared — and quick victories at Fort
   Mackinac and Detroit crippled American invasion efforts.

   During Sir Isaac's tenure he faced desertions and near mutinies, was
   injured in battle and nearly died from fever. His heroics earned him
   membership in the Order of the Bath, and he had the privilege of
   serving alongside Lord Nelson and Tecumseh. His death in the Battle of
   Queenston Heights was a crushing blow to British leadership.

Early life

   St. Peter Port, where Brock was born
   Enlarge
   St. Peter Port, where Brock was born

   Brock was born in Saint Peter Port on the Channel Island of Guernsey,
   as the eighth son of a middle class family. He earned a reputation
   during his early education as a good swimmer and boxer. He kept a
   reputation as a physically commanding man throughout his life, and is
   said to have stood between 6 ft 2 in and 6 ft 4 in (1.88 and 1.93 m) in
   height. He was also noted as a serious student, who took education very
   seriously, even at a young age. Following in the footsteps of his
   father and three of his older brothers, Brock decided to join the
   British military.

Military service

   Although he is best known for his capture of Detroit and other actions
   in the War of 1812, Brock had a successful pre-war career, and a quick
   rise through the ranks which many commented on at the time. Some
   credited luck, and others skill, in his rapid promotions, and it is
   fair to say that Brock had substantial portions of both on his way to
   prominence.

Early career

   Brock started as an ensign in the 8th Regiment of Foot in 1785 at the
   age of fifteen, where he was likely given responsibility for the
   regimental colours. Brock reached the rank of captain, and transferred
   to the 49th Regiment of Foot (also known as the Hertfordshire Regiment
   of Foot) on June 15, 1791. His nephew and biographer ( Ferdinand Brock
   Tupper) asserts that shortly after joining the regiment, a professional
   dueller forced a match on him. As the one being challenged, Brock had
   his choice of terms, and so he insisted that they fight with pistols.
   His friends were shocked, as Brock was considered only a moderately
   good shot, while this man was an expert. Brock, however, refused to
   change his mind. When the duellist arrived at the field, he asked Brock
   to decide how many paces they would take. Brock subsequently insisted
   that the duel would take place, not at the usual range, but at
   handkerchief distance. The duellist declined and subsequently was
   forced to leave the regiment. This contributed to Brock's popularity
   and reputation among his fellow officers, as this duellist had a
   formidable reputation, and thus bullied other officers without fear of
   reprisal. During his time with this regiment, he served in the
   Caribbean. At some point during his service there, Brock fell ill with
   fever and nearly died; only recovering once he had returned to England.

First command

   In 1797, Brock purchased the rank of Lieutenant Colonel, and became
   commander of the regiment. In 1799, the 49th was assigned to an
   expedition against the Batavian Republic (now known as the
   Netherlands), to be led by Sir Ralph Abercromby. During the troop
   landings, Brock saw his first combat, on September 10, 1799, under the
   command of then-Major General John Moore. Given that the 49th was in
   poor shape when Brock took command, they saw little of the actual
   combat. Likely Moore was sparing them, and using more experienced
   troops to establish the beachhead. Finally, on October 2, the 49th was
   actively involved in heavy combat, at Egmont-op-Zee, where they
   acquitted themselves well, only sustaining thirty-three fatalities.
   This was remarkable given the circumstances of the fight. The 49th had
   been ordered to proceed up the beaches of Egmont-op-Zee, a steep climb
   through sand dunes and poor terrain. The situation was exacerbated by
   harassment from French sharpshooters, who had excellent cover. After
   about six hours of heavy fighting, the attack was stopped about a mile
   (1.6 km) short of their objective. After an hour of close combat,
   including fist and sabre fighting, the French began to withdraw. Brock
   himself was injured in the fighting, when he was hit by a spent musket
   ball in the throat. A neck cloth prevented a possibly fatal injury. In
   his own words, "I got knocked down shortly after the enemy began to
   retreat, but never quitted [sic] the field, and returned to my duty in
   less than half an hour."
   The Battle of Copenhagen
   Enlarge
   The Battle of Copenhagen

   In 1801, while aboard the 74 gun HMS Ganges (commanded by Captain
   Thomas Fremantle, a personal friend of Brock's), Brock was present at
   the Battle of Copenhagen, where it was intended that his troops would
   lead an assault on the forts at Copenhagen. Although the outcome of the
   battle made such an assault unnecessary, Brock observed first hand the
   tactical brilliance of Lord Nelson. After the battle, along with
   Fremantle, he was among those to personally congratulate Nelson. In
   1802, Brock and the 49th Foot were ordered to Canada.

Transfer to Canada

   Brock arrived in Canada, along with the rest of the 49th foot, and was
   initially assigned to Quebec City. As foot soldier Jake Batchelor put
   it, "Such a sweet sight had never been seen by the men in all our
   travels." Almost immediately, in 1803 he was faced with one of the
   primary problems in Canada, desertion. Seven soldiers stole a boat and
   fled across the border into the United States. Brock sent a party
   across the border in pursuit, and the men were captured.

Mutiny

   A short time later, Brock was sent a report by an officer at Fort
   George that some of the garrison were planning to imprison the officers
   and flee to the U.S. Immediately, he boarded the schooner that had
   brought the message and went on it to Fort George, which was under the
   command of then-Lieutenant Colonel Roger Hale Sheaffe. A hastily
   assembled honour guard formed to greet Brock's unexpected arrival.
   Accompanied by an orderly and another soldier who would form his
   reputation in Canada, James Fitzgibbon, Brock had the sergeant of the
   guard disarmed and confined. Then he entered the fort.

   As it was the dinner hour, all the soldiers were in barracks. Brock
   sent his orderly to bring him a soldier suspected of being one of the
   mutiny's ringleaders. As soon as he entered the room Fitzgibbon pinned
   the man and threatened to kill him if he cried out. One at a time,
   other suspected mutineers were captured in the same way. Finally, Brock
   ordered the drummers to assemble the men. They filtered out of the
   barracks and formed a line in front of Brock. Brock ordered that all
   men involved in the mutiny step forward, and a number did so, and were
   arrested. Brock then addressed the regiment, and asked for the
   obedience of those who had not known about the mutiny. The men pledged
   this obedience, and returned to the barracks.

   Brock sent the twelve mutineers and the seven deserters to Quebec for
   court martial. There it was discovered that the mutineers had planned
   to jail all the officers, save Sheaffe, who was to be killed, and then
   cross the Niagara River into the U.S. at Queenston. Seven soldiers were
   subsequently executed by firing squad. Ferdinand Tupper, then aged ten,
   was present at the trial and executions, and wrote about them to Brock.
   He described how the mutineers had testified that they were forced to
   such measures by the severity of Sheaffe, and how, had they continued
   under Brock's command, they would never have taken such action. Brock
   was evidently much moved by the letter. As a result of his continued
   competence, Brock was promoted to colonel on October 30, 1805.

Pre-war preparations

   By 1806 the U.S. was becoming increasingly hostile to the British
   Empire, and relations between the two nations continued to deteriorate
   until war finally broke out in 1812. This hostility came from two
   sources: grievances at violations of American sovereignty and
   restriction of trade by Britain, and a desire to annex the
   poorly-defended British North American colonies to gain territory.
   American grievances included the impressment of American sailors by the
   Royal Navy, the blockade of French ports and a belief that the British
   were inciting American Indians to attack U.S. settlements on the
   western frontier. War hawks in the U.S. called for an invasion of
   Canada to punish the British Empire and to lessen the threat to
   American interests represented by the Native Americans. At the same
   time, the American colonies were becoming crowded, and there was a
   growing attitude—later described by the phrase Manifest Destiny—that
   the United States was destined to control all of the North American
   continent. American hawks assumed that Canadian colonists would rise up
   and support the invading U.S. armies as liberators, and that, as Thomas
   Jefferson assured the American public, conquering Canada would be easy.
   In response to this emerging threat, Brock moved quickly to bolster
   Canadian defences. He strengthened the fortifications of Quebec by
   building walls and an elevated battery. Despite having little formal
   education, Brock succeeded in creating a formidable defensive position
   largely due to his reading, which included several volumes on the
   science of running and setting up artillery. He also rearranged the
   marine department (responsible for lakes and rivers), which led to the
   development of a naval force capable of holding the Great Lakes. This
   was to be pivotal during the war.

   In 1807, Brock was made a brigadier-general by Governor General Sir
   James Henry Craig. He was to take command of all forces in Upper Canada
   in 1810. During this time, Brock continued to ask for a posting in
   Europe. In 1811 he was promoted to Major General, and in October of
   that year, Lieutenant Governor Francis Gore left for England. This made
   Brock the provisional Lieutenant Governor, and as such, administrator
   of Upper Canada, putting him fully in charge of both the military and
   civil authority. Thus, when permission to leave for Europe finally came
   in early 1812, Brock declined the offer, seeing it as his duty to
   defend Canada in war against the United States.

   As Upper Canada's administrator, Brock made a series of changes
   designed to help Canada in the event of a war. He amended the militia
   act, allowing the use of all available volunteers, and he ordered
   enhanced training of these raw recruits, despite opposition from the
   provincial legislature. Furthermore, he continued strengthening and
   reinforcing defences. Also, Brock began seeking out American Indian
   leaders, such as the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, to see if they would ally
   with him against the Americans in the event of war. Although the
   conventional wisdom of the day was that Canada would fall quickly in
   the event of an invasion, Brock pursued these strategies to give the
   colony a fighting chance.

War of 1812

Early war and the capture of Detroit

   Governor General Sir George Prevost, whose approach to the war
   conflicted with Brock's
   Enlarge
   Governor General Sir George Prevost, whose approach to the war
   conflicted with Brock's

   The U.S. declared war on Britain during June 12, 1812. Brock's
   preparations meant that Canada was not unprepared for the war; however,
   Brock felt that those preparations would not be enough to keep the
   colony secure. Thus he immediately moved to capture the strategically
   important Fort Mackinac. This attack was a complete success, but Brock
   felt he needed to go further. He was hampered in these efforts by the
   thrusts of Governor General George Prevost (Prevost replaced Craig in
   late 1811), who favoured a cautious approach to the war. Prevost felt
   that a strict emphasis should be placed on defence, and was against any
   attack into American territory.
   Brock's adversary at the Siege of Detroit, General William Hull
   Enlarge
   Brock's adversary at the Siege of Detroit, General William Hull

   On July 12, U.S. William Hull invaded Canada at Sandwich (later known
   as Windsor). The invasion was quickly halted, and Hull withdrew, but
   this gave Brock the excuse he needed to abandon Prevost's orders.
   Securing Tecumseh's aid, Brock advanced on Detroit. At this point, even
   with his American Indian allies, Brock was outnumbered approximately
   two to one. However, Brock had gauged Hull as a timid man, and
   particularly as being afraid of Tecumseh's natives. Brock thus decided
   to use a series of tricks to intimidate Hull. First, he allowed a
   message (ostensibly to Prevost) declining reinforcements to fall into
   Hull's hands. The reason given was that Brock had more than enough
   native allies to take the fort, and thus did not need additional
   British troops. Then, he dressed his militia divisions in military
   garb, making it appear as if his force consisted entirly of British
   Regulars, rather than farmers and blacksmiths. Brock then laid siege to
   Fort Detroit, and through a carefully crafted series of marches, made
   it appear he had far more natives with him then he actually did.
   Additionally, he ordered Tecumseh's forces to make as much noise as
   possible, thus giving the impression of a much larger force and
   intimidating Hull with the show of a raucous, barely controlled group
   of natives. Finally, he sent Hull a letter demanding his surrender, in
   which he stated, in part, "Sir: it is far from my inclination to join a
   war of extermination, but you must be aware that the numerous body of
   Indians who have attached themselves to my troops will be beyond my
   control the moment the contest commences." Brock then hammered the fort
   with cannon fire. On August 16, two hours after receiving Brock's
   letter, Hull surrendered unconditionally.

   From Hull's perspective, there was one, paramount reason for his
   surrender. Detroit was filled with civilians, including Hull's own
   daughter and grandson, and Hull greatly feared what would happen should
   he lose the battle. At his court-martial, he stated, "I have done what
   my conscience directed—I have saved Detroit and the Territory from the
   horrors of an Indian massacre." This was a huge victory for Brock for a
   number of reasons. First, it struck a massive blow to American morale,
   and eliminated the main American force in the area as a threat.
   Secondly, it gave a badly needed corresponding morale boost to the
   Canadian population, many of whom had not believed Canada stood a
   chance against the superior military might of the U.S. (some had even
   defected to the U.S., and many were recent immigrants from that
   country). Third, it allowed Brock to take the American supplies at
   Detroit and use them for his own forces, particularly the ill-equipped
   militia. Finally, it secured the support of Tecumseh and the other
   American Indian chiefs, who took it as both a sign of competency and a
   willingness to take action.

   In enlisting the help of Tecumseh, Brock made a number of commitments
   to the Shawnee. He promised to negotiate no peace treaty without
   addressing the Shawnee's vision of an independent homeland. Although
   this was undoubtedly because Brock needed the help of Tecumseh, there
   is no evidence Brock negotiated in bad faith. Also, Tecumseh evidently
   trusted and respected Brock, reportedly saying, "This is a man" after
   meeting him for the first time.

   The capture of Detroit also led to British domination over most of
   Michigan Territory. Brock had planned to continue his campaign into the
   U.S., but he was thwarted by the negotiation of an armistice by Prevost
   with American Major General Henry Dearborn. This stalled Brock's
   momentum, and gave the Americans time to regroup and prepare for an
   invasion of Canada. Unable to predict the point of invasion, Brock
   frantically worked to prepare defences throughout Upper Canada.

Death at Queenston Heights

   General Roger Hale Sheaffe, who took command upon Brock's death
   Enlarge
   General Roger Hale Sheaffe, who took command upon Brock's death

   Meanwhile, the American general Stephen Van Rensselaer III, a
   Federalist political appointee with little military experience, who was
   in command of a sizeable army near Lewiston, came under presidential
   pressure to invade. Although Van Rensselaer had severe doubts about the
   quality of his troops, he had no choice but to attack. Making matters
   worse, Van Rensselaer was an inexperienced militia general, and thus
   not trusted by the majority of regular army troops. In the early
   morning of October 13, 1812, he attempted to cross the Niagara River,
   leading to the Battle of Queenston Heights. Despite heavy fire from
   British artillery, the first wave of Americans (under Captain John E.
   Wool) managed to land, and then follow a fishermen's path up to the
   heights. From this point, they attacked and beat the British artillery.

   From nearby Fort George, Brock hurried to take command of the small
   British force stationed at the heights. Fearing that the Americans,
   with the artillery out of the way, would move the rest of their troops
   across the river, he ordered an immediate attack on their position.
   True to his personal philosophy of never ordering men where he would
   not lead them, he personally led the charge. The charge nearly
   succeeded, but was repelled. Brock himself was wounded in the hand, but
   then immediately led a second charge. An obvious target in his
   general's uniform, Brock was shot and killed by American sharpshooters.
   Brock's last words have been reported as surgite ( Latin for "rise" or
   perhaps "press on"), or "Push on, brave York Volunteers" (in reference
   to a group of the militia Brock favoured) and even "My fall must not be
   noticed or impede my brave companions from advancing to victory." It
   has also been reported that Brock died immediately, however, so these
   accounts are by no means certain.

   Following his death, Sheaffe arrived at the battle scene and took
   command of the British forces. In sharp contrast to his predecessor's
   direct attack, Sheaffe took a more cautionary approach. This ultimately
   proved successful, leading to a total victory over the Americans at the
   cost of only 50 of his own men. During the battle, it is reported that
   the 49th used "Revenge the General" as a battle cry.

Burial

   After the battle, Sheaffe and his staff decided to entrust the funeral
   arrangements to Captain John Glegg, who had served with Brock for many
   years.

   On October 16, a funeral procession for Brock and Colonel Macdonell
   went from Government House to Fort George, with soldiers from the
   British Army, the colonial militia, and the American Indian tribes on
   either side of the route. The caskets were then lowered into a freshly
   dug grave in the northeast corner of Fort George. The British then
   fired a twenty-one gun salute in three salvos, in a gesture of respect.
   Later that day, the American garrison at Fort Niagara respectfully
   fired a similar salute. Several thousand people attended the funeral, a
   remarkable number given the population of Upper Canada at that time.

   All told, Brock and Macdonell's remains were moved a total of three
   times, until finally coming to a permanent rest inside Brock's
   Monument, on October 13, 1853. Between twelve and fifteen thousand
   people were on hand for the final burial.

Attitudes

   Although many Canadians have come to view Brock as one of their own,
   Brock never really felt at home in Canada. Although he was
   complimentary toward Quebec City, on the whole Brock viewed the country
   as a backwater, and earnestly wished to return to Europe to fight
   against Napoleon . Furthermore, Brock mistrusted the Canadian
   colonists, many of whom he suspected of being American sympathizers,
   and was reluctant to arm them to help defend the colonies; he was far
   happier fighting alongside British regulars and Tecumseh's native
   fighters.

   His attitude towards Tecumseh and his other American Indian allies is
   noteworthy. Although Brock's correspondence indicates a certain amount
   of paternal condescension for the natives, he seems to have regarded
   Tecumseh himself very highly (calling him the "Wellington of the
   Indians", and saying "a more sagacious or a more gallant warrior does
   not I believe exist"), and also to have a certain respect for native
   peoples. Brock's personal integrity has been well documented, and
   suggests that if he had lived he would have kept his word to provide
   the Shawnee with their own homeland.

   Despite his lack of an extensive formal education, Brock appreciated
   the importance of it. It is reported that he often spent his leisure
   time sequestered in his room, reading books in an attempt to improve
   his education. His tastes varied, and he read many works on military
   tactics and science, but he also read on philosophy and other, less
   immediately practical, topics . At the time of his death he was in
   possession of a modest library of books, including works by
   Shakespeare, Voltaire, and Samuel Johnson.

Legacy

   St. Paul's Cathedral, home to a memorial for Brock
   Enlarge
   St. Paul's Cathedral, home to a memorial for Brock

On British leadership

   British military leadership, which had been decisive up to Brock's
   death, suffered a crushing blow with his loss. His direct successor,
   Major-General Sheaffe, although successful in his approach at Queenston
   Heights, was never able to live up to Brock's reputation. He was
   criticised by many, including John Strachan, for his retreat at the
   Battle of York, and was shortly after recalled to England, where he
   went on to have a successful, if not brilliant, military career.

   Brock's successor at Detroit, however, fared much worse. Colonel Henry
   Procter faced an attack from a resurrected American Army of the
   Northwest under future President William Henry Harrison. Harrison set
   out to retake Detroit, but a detachment of his army was defeated at
   Frenchtown on January 22, 1813. Procter, displaying poor judgement,
   left the prisoners in the custody of his native allies, who proceeded
   to execute sixty of them. Subsequent American victories allowed
   Harrison to attempt another invasion of Canada, which led to the Battle
   of the Thames on October 5, 1813. After a successful American charge,
   Procter's forces turned and fled, leaving Tecumseh and his American
   Indian troops to fight alone. They fought on, eventually being
   defeated. Perhaps of more importance to the British, at this battle
   Tecumseh died, and their alliance with the American Indians effectively
   ended.

   As for Governor General Prevost, who often clashed with Brock, he
   remained in command of all British forces until after the Battle of
   Plattsburgh, in 1814. The battle was intended to be a joint
   naval/infantry attack, but Prevost did not commit his forces until
   after the naval battle had nearly ended. When he finally did attack,
   his forces proved unable to cross the Saranac River bridge, which was
   held by a small group of American regulars under the command of the
   recently promoted Wool. Despite a heavy advantage in manpower, Prevost
   finally retreated upon hearing of the failure of the naval attack. For
   his failure at Plattsburgh, Prevost was recalled to England to face an
   inquiry. Prevost's health failed him, and he died in early 1815.

In Canada

   Canadians regard Brock as one of their greatest military heroes, since
   he helped save the Canadian colonies when all seemed hopeless. He was
   even voted #28 on The Greatest Canadian, despite not actually being a
   Canadian. A web-based survey by the Angus Reid polling group placed him
   as the greatest of Canadian military heroes. A small cairn at the foot
   of the Niagara Escarpment marks the spot where Brock fell, while an
   impressive monument, built by public subscription, overlooks the
   Heights as a lasting tribute. The monument was bombed and heavily
   damaged in 1840 by Irish-Canadian terrorist Benjamin Lett, but it was
   later repaired, although the bodies inside had to be temporarily moved
   so as not to damage them. Inscribed on the monument are the words: "He
   fell in action the 13th day of October 1812, in the 43rd year of his
   age. Honoured and beloved by the people whom he governed, and deplored
   by his Sovereign to whose service his life had been devoted. His
   remains are deposited in this vault, as also those of his aide-de-camp,
   Lieutenant-Colonel John Macdonell, who died of his wounds, the 14th of
   October 1812, received the day before in action." There is a monument
   to Brock's horse Alfred located at the south end of the village of
   Queenston nearby the cairn marking the spot where Brock fell. In 1816,
   a series of private half-penny tokens were issued by an unknown company
   bearing Brock's name and the title "The Hero of Upper Canada". This was
   somewhat ironic, as private copper tokens had become common in Canada
   due to initial distrust of "army bills", which were paper notes issued
   by Brock. Also in tribute to him are named the City of Brockville,
   Ontario, Canada , the Township of Brock, the Village of Brock,
   Saskatchewan and a university at St. Catharines, Brock University.
   Other schools named in his honour include the Isaac Brock School in
   Winnipeg (built in 1913), and the Sir Isaac Brock Public schools in
   Toronto, Guelph, Hamilton, London and Windsor, Ontario. Various roads
   throughout Ontario are also named after him, including the General
   Issac Brock Parkway, Highway 405. There is also at least one vessel
   named after him, the SS Isaac Brock. The Bruce Trail has its southern
   terminus about 200 metres from Brock's Monument on the easterly side of
   the Monument park grounds.

   The late Phyllis Hockin Gretzky, mother of hockey great Wayne Gretzky,
   was a descendent of Brock.

   On October 13th 2006, at a cermony at Queenston Heights restaurant,
   Ontario Provincial Highway 405 was renamed the General Brock Parkway in
   honour of Major General Sir Isaac Brock.

In Britain

   Although Brock's achievements were overshadowed by larger-scale
   fighting in Europe, his death was still widely noted, particularly in
   Guernsey. Subsequent failures by other British commanders in Canada
   helped to cement Brock's outstanding reputation. In London, he is
   remembered at a moderate memorial in St. Paul's Cathedral. He was given
   the title ' Knight of the Bath (KCB)' for his victory at Detroit,
   although word did not reach Canada until after his death, so he never
   knew he had been knighted. The depot of the Royal Berkshire Regiment
   located in Reading Berkshire, created in 1881, is named "Brock's
   Barracks", in his honour. A British naval vessel, the HMS Isaac Brock,
   was destroyed while under construction at the Battle of York.

In Guernsey

   Brock's childhood home in the High Street, St Peter Port remains
   standing where the lower floors are now a store of the British pharmacy
   retailer, Boots, and marked with a memorial plaque. A memorial, paid
   for by Canada, is fitted into the side of the Town Church, the parish
   church of St Peter Port. Brock University gives two places to Guernsey
   students who achieve sufficiently high grades.

   In 1969 and 1996, the Guernsey Post Office issued postage stamps to
   commemorating his life and achievements.
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