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Iran

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Countries; Middle Eastern
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   جمهوری اسلامی ايران
   Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān
   Islamic Republic of Iran

   Flag of Iran Emblem of Iran
   Flag         Emblem
   Motto: Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī  ( Persian)
   "Independence, freedom, (the) Islamic Republic"
   Anthem: Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān
   Location of Iran
   Capital
   (and largest city) Tehran
   35°40′N 44°26′E
   Official languages Persian
   Government Islamic Republic
    - Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei
    - President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
   Establishment
    - Elamite Kingdom 2700 BC
    - Median Kingdom 728 BC
    - Unification 549 BC
    - Reunification May 1502
    - First Constitution August 5, 1906
    - Islamic Revolution February 11, 1979
   Area
    - Total 1,648,195 km² ( 18th)
   636,372 sq mi
    - Water (%) 0.7
   Population
    - 2005 estimate 68,467,413 ( 17th)
    - 1996 census 60,055,488
    - Density 42/km² ( 158th)
   109/sq mi
   GDP ( PPP) 2005 estimate
    - Total $569.9 billion  ( 19th)
    - Per capita $8,400  ( 71th)
   HDI  (2006) 0.746 (medium) ( 96th)
   Currency Iranian rial (ريال) ( IRR)
   Time zone ( UTC+3.30)
    - Summer ( DST) not observed ( UTC+3.30)
   Internet TLD .ir
   Calling code +98

   Iran  ( Persian: ايران‎ ​, Īrān), officially the Islamic Republic of
   Iran ( Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ايران‎ ​, transliteration: Jomhūrī-ye
   Eslāmī-ye Īrān), and formerly known as Persia in the West, is a
   southwest Asian country located in the Middle East. Iran borders
   Armenia, Azerbaijan (including its Nakhichevan exclave) and
   Turkmenistan to the north, Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east, and
   Turkey and Iraq to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf,
   across which lie Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and
   the United Arab Emirates. Shi'a Islam is the official state religion
   and Persian the official language.

   Throughout history, Iran has been of great geostrategic importance
   because of its central location in Eurasia. Iran is a member and
   co-founder of the United Nations, NAM, the OIC, and OPEC. Iran is also
   significant in international politics on account of its large supply of
   petroleum. The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and literally means
   "Land of the Aryans."

Name

   Map of the world by Eratosthenes, c.200 BCE. In antiquity, the names
   Ariana (Āryānā) and Persis were used to describe the region where
   modern-day Iran is found.
   Enlarge
   Map of the world by Eratosthenes, c.200 BCE. In antiquity, the names
   Ariana (Āryānā) and Persis were used to describe the region where
   modern-day Iran is found.

   In former ages, the names Āryānā and Persis were used to describe the
   region which is today known as the Iranian plateau. The earliest
   Iranian reference to the word (airya/arya/aryana etc), however,
   predates the Iranian prophet Zoroaster (est. anywhere between 1200 to
   1800 BCE, according to Greek sources, as early as 6000 BCE and is
   attested in non- Gathic Avestan; it appears as airya, meaning
   noble/spiritual/elevated; as airya dainhava (Yt.8.36, 52) meaning the
   land of the Aryans; and as airyana vaejah, the original land of the
   Aryans.

   During the Achaemenid dynasty (550-330 BCE), the Persian people called
   their provincial homeland Pārsa, the Old Persian name for Cyrus the
   Great's kingdom which belonged to the Persian tribe of the Iranian
   branch of the Indo-Iranians and which can still be found in the term
   Pars or Fars as part of the heartland of Iran and for example in the
   map by Eratosthenes and other historical or modern maps.
   Stonecarving from Persepolis showing Darius I the Great of Persia
   (521-486 BC).
   Enlarge
   Stonecarving from Persepolis showing Darius I the Great of Persia
   (521-486 BC).

   However, the country as a whole was called Aryanam. The word Ariya,
   noble/spiritual/elevated, is attested in the Inscriptions of Darius the
   Great and his son, Xerxes I; it is used both as a linguistic and a
   racial designation as Darius refers to this at the Behistun inscription
   (DBiv.89), which is written in Aryan language/airyan, also

   known as Old Persian. Both Darius and Xerxes state in Naqsh-i Rustam
   (DNa.14), Susa (DSe.13), and Persepolis (XPh.13):

   Adam Pārsa, Pārsahyā puça; Ariya, Ariya ciça...
   "I am Persian, son of a Persian; an Aryan, having Aryan lineage."

   In Parthian times (248 BCE – 224 CE), Aryanam was modified to Aryan. In
   the early Sassanid Period (224–651 CE), it had already evolved to
   Middle Persian Ērān or Ērān Shahr which finally resulted in New Persian
   Iran or Iran Shahr.

   At the time of the Achaemenian empire, the Greeks called the country
   Persis, the Greek name for Pars (Fars), the central region where the
   empire was founded; this passed into Latin and became Persia, the name
   widely used in Western countries which causes confusion as Persia is
   actually Pars (Fars) province.

   In the twentieth century, a dispute arose over whether Iran or Persia
   is the correct name for the country. On 21 March 1935, the ruler of the
   country, Reza Shah Pahlavi, issued a decree asking foreign delegates to
   use the term Iran in formal correspondence in accordance with the fact
   that "Persia" was a term used for a country called "Iran" in Persian.
   Opponents claimed that this act brought cultural damage to the country
   and separated Iran from its past in the West. The 1979 Revolution led
   to the establishment of the present day theocracy that is officially
   called the Islamic Republic of Iran, but the noun Persia and the
   adjective Persian are still commonly used.

History

A new Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire

   The Arg-e Bam citadel, built before 500 BC.
   Enlarge
   The Arg-e Bam citadel, built before 500 BC.

   Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the
   Iranian plateau, taking over the eastern provinces of the Greek
   Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and
   intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. It
   was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran ( Persia). Parthia
   (mostly due to their invention of heavy cavalry) was the arch-enemy of
   the Roman Empire in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond
   Cappadocia (central Anatolia).

   The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily-armed
   and armoured cataphracts and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted
   archers. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians
   were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and
   more mobile than foot soldiers. On the other hand, the Parthians found
   it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in siege
   warfare. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the
   Parthians were able to completely anex each other.

   The Parthian empire lasted five centuries, longer than most Eastern
   Empires. The end of this long lasted empire came in 224 CE, when the
   empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by one of
   the empire's vassals, the Persians of the Sassanian dynasty.

Zoroastrianism and Second Persian Empire: Sassanian Empire

   The 2500 year old ruins of Persepolis (Old Persian: Parsa'; New
   Persian: Takht-e Jamshid).
   Enlarge
   The 2500 year old ruins of Persepolis (Old Persian: Parsa'; New
   Persian: Takht-e Jamshid).
   The Sassanian Empire in 602-629 AD (green) and areas under Sassanid
   military control (striped).
   Enlarge
   The Sassanian Empire in 602-629 AD (green) and areas under Sassanid
   military control (striped).

   Before the Islamic conquest of Persia, Zoroastrianism was the national
   religion of the Sassanian Empire of Persia, and played an important
   role in the earlier Achaemenian and Parthian dynasties. The Iranian
   Prophet Zoroaster is considered by numerous scholars as the founder of
   the earliest religion based on revealed scripture. Many scholars point
   out that Judaism and subsequently, Christianity and Islam have borrowed
   from Zoroastrianism in regards to the concepts of Eschatology,
   Angelology and Demonology, as well as the fallen angel Satan, as the
   ultimate agent of evil; some suggest it might have been a process of
   mutual influencing. Zoroastrian monotheism has had major influence on
   the religions of the Middle Eastern monotheisms in adaptations of such
   concepts as heavens, hells, judgment day and messianic figures. These
   concepts (amongst many others) reflect the extreme dualism of Persian
   culture which has influenced Eastern and Western civilization.
   According to Professor Mary Boyce, who was the world's leading doyenne
   of Zoroastrian studies and Iranology, Zoroastrianism is the oldest of
   the revealed credal religions, and it has probably had more influence
   on mankind, directly and indirectly, than any other single faith.
   Nonetheless, claims of Zoroastrianism influencing ancient Jewish (and
   subsequent Christian) thought are disputed by other scholars or
   explained by the mutual influencing phenomenon.

   Despite its heavy persecution of Christians during the fourth century,
   fifth century Zoroastrian Iran became a haven for Nestorians fleeing
   Christian territories that supported the Council of Ephesus. As a
   result, the Assyrian Church of the East was formed.

   The first Shah of the Sassanian Empire, Ardashir I, started reforming
   the country both economically and militarily. The empire's territory
   encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern
   parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia
   and Arabia. During Khosrau II's rule in 590-628, Egypt, Jordan,
   Palestine and Lebanon were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians
   called their empire Erānshahr (or Iranshæhr, "Dominion of the Aryans",
   i.e. of Iranians).

   An interesting chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly six
   hundred years of conflict with the Roman Empire. According to
   historians, the war-exhausted Persians lost the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah
   (632 CE) in Hilla, (present day Iraq). The Persian general Rostam
   Farrokhzād had been criticised for his decision to face the Arabs on
   their own ground, suggesting that the Persians could have prevailed if
   they had stayed on the opposite bank of the Euphrates. The first day of
   battle ended with Persian advances and the Arab force appeared as
   though it would succumb to the much larger Sassanian army. In
   particular, the latter's elephants terrified the Arab cavalry. By the
   third day of battle, Arab veterans arrived on the scene and re-enforced
   the Arab army. In addition a clever trick whereby the Arab horses were
   decorated in costume succeeded in frightening the Persian elephants.
   When an Arab warrior succeeded in slaying the lead elephant, the rest
   fled into the rear, trampelling numerous Persian fighters. At dawn of
   the fourth day, a sandstorm broke out blowing sand in the Persian
   army's faces resulting in total disarray for the Sassanian army and
   paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia.

   The Sassanian era, encompassing the length of the Late Antiquity
   period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential
   historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. In
   many ways the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of
   Persian civilization, and constituted the last great Iranian Empire
   before the adoption of Islam. Persia influenced Roman civilisation
   considerably during the Sassanians times; their cultural influence
   extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far
   as Western Europe, Africa, China and India and also playing a prominent
   role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art. This
   influence carried forward to the early Islamic world. The dynasty's
   unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and
   destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance. Much of what later
   became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing and other
   skills, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim
   world.

Islamic Persia and Islamic Golden Age of Persia

   Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) is considered the greatest of the medieval Islamic
   and Persian physicians. His work directly influenced the Renaissance.
   Enlarge
   Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) is considered the greatest of the medieval Islamic
   and Persian physicians. His work directly influenced the Renaissance.
   Ali Qapu palace, the celebrated seat of the Safavid in Isfahan, Iran.
   Enlarge
   Ali Qapu palace, the celebrated seat of the Safavid in Isfahan, Iran.

   After the conquest Persians began to look for ways in which they could
   remain Muslim but also define themselves as Persians and sought the "
   Persianisation" of Islam. In the 8 CE (2 H) they helped the Abbassids
   to overthrow the Umayyad Dynasty, an Arab-oriented regime that was
   largely disdainful towards Persians and Persian culture. Under the
   Abbasids, Persians (and other non-Arabs) began to take on a more
   meaningful role in the Islamic Empire's intellectual, cultural, and
   political realms. Persians entered the Abbassid government as
   ministers, among those were the Barmakids. They established new
   dynasties in some parts of Iran, which derived legitimacy from the
   caliphs. Tahirid dynasty and Samanid dynasty were among those. One of
   these dynasties ( Buwayhid) also conquered Baghdad.

   Also a cultural movement emerged during the ninth and tenth centuries.
   There was a resurgence of Persian national identity. It was not against
   Islamic identity but against Arabization of Islam and Muslims. The most
   notable effect of the movement was the decision of the continuation of
   the Persian language, the language of the Persians to the present day.
   Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most
   important person in maintaining the Persian language.

   During this period, Persia and Persian scientists created an Islamic
   Golden Age (see List of Iranian scientists and scholars). Persia was at
   this point of history a world centre of scientific inquiry, with
   philosophers, scientists, engineers and historians contributing
   enormously to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the
   rise of European science in the Renaissance. The late Middle Ages
   however brought many critical events in the region. From 1220, Persia
   was again invaded and destroyed by wave after wave of calamity starting
   with the Mongol invasion, followed later by Tamerlane. During the
   Mongol period more than half of the population were killed and didn't
   reach its pre-Mongol levels until the twentieh century.

Safavid Empire, Shi'a Islam and modern Iran

   Persia's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under
   the Safavid dynasty in 1501. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major
   power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under
   their rule the Persian Architecture flowered again and saw many new
   monuments. The decline of the Safavid state in the seventeenth century
   increasingly turned Persia into an arena for rising rival colonial
   powers such as Imperial Russia and the British Empire that wielded
   great political influence in Tehran under the Qajarid dynasty. Iran
   however, managed to maintain its sovereignty and was never colonized,
   making it unique in the region. With the rise of modernization in the
   late nineteenth century, desire for change led to the Persian
   Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911. In 1921, Reza Khan (known as
   Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a coup against the weakened
   Qajar dynasty. A supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the
   development of modern industry, railroads, and establishment of a
   national education system, but his autocratic rule and unbalanced
   social reforms created discontent among many Iranians.
   Eram Garden, a famous historic garden built in Shiraz during the Qajar
   era.
   Enlarge
   Eram Garden, a famous historic garden built in Shiraz during the Qajar
   era.

   During World War II, Britain and the USSR invaded Iran from August 25
   to September 17, 1941, to stop an Axis-supported coup and secure Iran's
   petroleum infrastructure. The Allies forced the Shah to abdicate in
   favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, whom they hoped would be more
   supportive. In 1951, an eccentric pro-democratic nationalist, Dr.
   Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected its first
   Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh alarmed the West by his
   nationalization of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum,
   BP) that had controlled the country's oil reserves. In response,
   Britain immediately embargoed Iran. In 1953, members of the British
   Intelligence Service invited the United States under President
   Eisenhower to join them in Operation Ajax to overthrow Iran’s
   democracy. President Eisenhower agreed, authorizing the CIA to take the
   lead in the operation of overthrowing Mossadegh and reinstalling a
   US-friendly monarch. The CIA faced many setbacks, but eventually
   succeeded.
   Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh founder of Iran's first democratic government,
   overthrown in a CIA-backed coup in 1953
   Enlarge
   Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh founder of Iran's first democratic government,
   overthrown in a CIA-backed coup in 1953

   Regardless of this setback, the covert operation soon went into full
   swing, conducted from the US Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of
   Kermit Roosevelt, Jr.. Agents were hired to facilitate violence; and,
   as a result, protests broke out across the nation. Anti- and
   pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving
   almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a
   coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded
   the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested
   on 19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three
   years in prison.
   Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of the Iranian Monarchy, crowning
   Farah Pahlavi as Empress of Iran.
   Enlarge
   Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of the Iranian Monarchy, crowning
   Farah Pahlavi as Empress of Iran.

   Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was then reinstated as Shah. His rule became
   increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support
   from the US and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but
   simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his
   intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an
   active critic of the Shah's modernization efforts and publicly
   denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious
   circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release
   in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The
   Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan.
   Khomeini was sent first to Turkey and then to Iraq. While in exile, he
   continued to denounce the Shah.

The Islamic Revolution and contemporary Iran

   1979 saw an increase in protests against the Shah, culminating in the
   Iranian Revolution. The Shah fled the country again, after which
   Khomeini returned from exile in France on February 1, 1979 and
   eventually succeeded in taking power. On February 11, Khomeini declared
   a provisional government led by prime minster Mehdi Bazargan and on
   March 30 to March 31, asked all Iranians sixteen years of age and
   older, male and female, to vote in a referendum on the question of
   establishing an Islamic republic in Iran. Over 98% voted in favour of
   replacing the monarchy with the newly-proposed form of government.
   Khomeini's new Islamic state instated conservative Islamic laws and
   unprecedented levels of direct clerical rule.

   Iran's relations with the United States were severely strained after
   the revolution, especiallly when Iranian students seized US embassy
   personnel on November 4, 1979, labeling the embassy a "den of spies"
   and accused its personnel of being CIA agents trying to overthrow the
   revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in
   1953. Khomeini did not stop the students from holding embassy employees
   hostage and instead supported the embassy take over, a move which only
   increased his popularity among the revolutionaries. Women, African
   Americans and one hostage diagnosed with multiple sclerosis were soon
   released. Despite attempts made by the administration of US President
   Jimmy Carter at negotiating and rescuing the remaining hostages through
   such methods as Operation Eagle Claw, Iran refused to release them and
   threatened to put the hostages on trial for espionage. The students
   demanded the handover of the shah in exchange for the hostages.
   However, this exchange never took place, and after 444 days of
   captivity, embassy employees were finally allowed to leave Iran and
   return to the United States on the basis of Algiers declaration in
   which U.S. hasn't released the properties of Iran.

   Meanwhile, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of
   what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution
   and its unpopularity with Western governments. Of particular interest
   was that the once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the
   revolution. With the Shah out of power, Hussein had far-reaching
   ambitions to assert himself as the new strong man of the Middle East
   and planned a full-scale invasion of Iran, boasting that his forces
   could reach the capital within three days. The Iraqi army's assault
   took the country completely by surprise and the destructive Iran-Iraq
   War called "Saddām's al-Qādisiyyah" in Iraq, and the "Imposed war" in
   Iran had begun.

   Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were
   killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was
   financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf,
   the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom,
   Germany,and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to
   Iran) All of these countries provided intelligence, agents for chemical
   weapons as well as other forms of military assistance to Saddam
   Hussein. Iran's principal allies during the war were Syria, Libya,
   North Korea, Cuba and Yugoslavia.

   Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982,
   Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini
   refused a cease-fire from Iraq which was demanding huge reparation
   payments and an end to his rule. Khomeini also sought to export his
   Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a
   Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years
   until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and
   accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. With the fall of
   Saddam's regime in Iraq in April 2003 and his capture in December of
   that year, Iran announced it had sent its own indictment against Saddam
   to Iraq's government, with the list of complaints including the use of
   chemical weapons. The total Iranian casualties of the war were
   estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 to 1,000,000. Almost all
   relevant international agencies have confirmed Saddams chemical warfare
   to blunt Iranian human wave attacks, while unanimously announcing that
   Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.

Government and politics

   Iran is a founding member of the United Nations organization and also a
   member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and the
   Non-Aligned Movement.

   The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979
   Constitution called the "Qanun-e Asasi" ("Fundamental Law"). The system
   comprises several intricately connected governing bodies.

Supreme Leader

   The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and
   supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran".
   The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls
   the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power
   to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television
   networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of
   the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the
   Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the
   Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. The
   Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader
   in the performance of legal duties.

Executive

   After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President as the
   highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage
   for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by
   the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their
   allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is
   responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the
   exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to
   the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President
   appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates
   government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed
   before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the
   President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all
   be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive
   branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the
   President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is
   customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the
   Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the
   legislature for a vote of confidence.

Council of Guardians

   The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six
   appointed by the Supreme Leader. The head of the judiciary, who is also
   appointed by the Supreme Leader, recommends the remaining six, who are
   officially appointed by Parliament. The Council interprets the
   constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible
   with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law) , it is referred back to
   Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority,
   the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's
   constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.

Expediency Council

   The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between
   Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body
   to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing
   bodies in the country.

Parliament

   The Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami (Islamic Consultative Assembly) is
   comprised of 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts
   legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national
   budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly
   must be approved by the Council of Guardians. Before the Islamic
   Revolution, Iran's legislature was bicameral with both the Majlis and a
   Senate; the Senate was eliminated in the 1979 constitution.

Judiciary

   The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Judiciary, who in turn
   appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.
   There are several types of courts including public courts that deal
   with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal
   with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national
   security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and
   cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly
   committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay
   people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the
   regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme
   Leader. The Court’s rulings are final and cannot be appealed.

Assembly of Experts

   After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed to Azadi Tower (Freedom
   Tower).
   Enlarge
   After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed to Azadi Tower (Freedom
   Tower).

   The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises
   86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for
   eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections,
   the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The
   Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority
   to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. The Assembly has
   never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

City and village councils

   Local councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all
   cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's
   Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are
   "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section
   of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local
   council elections were held across the country. Councils have many
   different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the
   activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural,
   educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their
   constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in
   the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural,
   educational and other welfare affairs.

Administrative divisions

   Iran is divided into thirty provinces (ostanha, sing. ostan), each
   governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The map does
   not show the southern islands of Hormozgan (#20 listed below):
   Numbered map of provinces

   1 Tehran
   2 Qom
   3 Markazi
   4 Qazvin
   5 Gilan
   6 Ardabil
   7 Zanjan
   8 East Azarbaijan
   9 West Azarbaijan
   10 Kurdistan

                    11 Hamedan
                    12 Kermanshah
                    13 Ilam
                    14 Lorestan
                    15 Khuzestan
                    16 Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari
                    17 Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad
                    18 Bushehr
                    19 Fars
                    20 Hormozgan

                                                 21 Sistan and Baluchistan
                                                 22 Kerman
                                                 23 Yazd
                                                 24 Esfahan
                                                 25 Semnan
                                                 26 Mazandaran
                                                 27 Golestan
                                                 28 North Khorasan
                                                 29 Razavi Khorasan
                                                 30 South Khorasan

Geography and climate

   Mount Damavand is highest point of Iran and the Middle East.
   Enlarge
   Mount Damavand is highest point of Iran and the Middle East.

   Hills south west of Sanandaj near the village of Kilaneh, Kurdistan
   Province.
   Enlarge
   Hills south west of Sanandaj near the village of Kilaneh, Kurdistan
   Province.

   Iran is the seventeenth-largest country in the world. Its area roughly
   equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany
   combined, one-fifth the size of the United States or roughly the size
   of the state of Alaska. Its borders are with Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi)
   and Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the Caspian Sea to the
   north; Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast; Pakistan
   (909 km/565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east; Turkey
   (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the
   waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's
   area is 1,648,000  km² (approximately 636,300  mi²), of which
   1,636,000 km² (approx. 631,663 mi²) is land and 12,000 km² (approx.
   4,633 mi²) is water.

   Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is
   dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or
   plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most
   mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz
   Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at
   5,604  m (18,386  ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but
   also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu
   Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins like the saline
   Dasht-e Kavir, and some salt lakes. Except for some scattered oases,
   these deserts are uninhabited.
   Dizin skiing resort, Iran.
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   Dizin skiing resort, Iran.
   Fars Province landscape.
   Enlarge
   Fars Province landscape.

   The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and
   at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth
   of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the
   remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea
   of Oman.

   Iran's climate is mostly arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the
   Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal
   plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the
   rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84 °F).
   Annual precipitation is 680  mm (27  in) in the eastern part of the
   plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west,
   settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower
   temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures
   and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less
   than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average
   summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the
   Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and
   very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to
   355 mm (five to fourteen inches).

Economy

   A building on a busy commercial street in Tehran.
   Enlarge
   A building on a busy commercial street in Tehran.
   An Iran Air Boeing 747-200.
   Enlarge
   An Iran Air Boeing 747-200.

   Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil
   and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale
   private trading and service ventures. Its economic infrastructure has
   been improving steadily over the past two decades.

   In the early 21st century the service sector contributed the largest
   percentage of the GDP, followed by industry ( mining and manufacturing)
   and agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from
   oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees.
   Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of
   14 percent in the period 2000-2004. In 2004 the GDP was estimated at
   $163 billion, or $2,440 per capita ($8,100 at PPP). Because of these
   figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the
   United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semideveloped.

   The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans
   of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's
   oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by investing revenues
   in areas like automobile manufacturing, aerospace industries, consumer
   electronics, petrochemicals and nuclear technology.

   Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of foreign investment
   by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced
   restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones like in
   Chabahar and the island of Kish. Modern Iran has a solid middle class
   and a growing economy but continues to be affected by inflation and
   unemployment.

   Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to
   large-scale state subsidies (totaling some $7.25 billion per year) that
   include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.

   Iran is OPEC's second largest oil producer, exporting over three
   million barrels of oil per day; moreover, it holds 10% of the world's
   confirmed oil reserves. Iran also has the world's second largest
   natural gas reserves (after Russia). The strong oil market in 1996
   helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely
   debt service payments.

   The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of
   its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has
   boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the
   improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export
   markets. Thanks to the construction of many dams throughout the country
   in recent years, large-scale irrigation schemes, and the wider
   production of export-based agricultural items like dates, flowers, and
   pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran
   over much of the 1990s. Although successive years of severe drought in
   1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially,
   agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of
   all jobs according to the 1991 census.

   Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and
   pharmaceuticals industry. For energy, it currently relies on
   conventional methods, but as of March 2006, uranium refinement, the
   last major hurdle to developing nuclear power, was revealed to have
   taken place.

   Iran's major commercial partners are China, Russia, Germany, France,
   Italy, Japan and South Korea. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased
   its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including
   Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is also expanding
   its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners
   the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and
   Central Asia, much like the European Union.

Demographics

   Ethnic diversity of Iran.
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   Ethnic diversity of Iran.
   Demography of Iran (2002)
   Enlarge
   Demography of Iran (2002)

   Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and
   ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. Persians, the
   founders of Ancient Persia, constitute the majority of the population.
   Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are Iranic peoples, native
   speakers of Indo-European languages who are descended from the Aryan (
   Indo-Iranians) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what
   is now Iran in the second millennium BC. The majority of the population
   speaks one of the Iranian languages, including the official language,
   Persian ( Farsi). The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris
   (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi
   (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews,
   Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Pashtuns and others (1%). The
   number of native speakers of Persian in Iran is estimated at around 40
   million. However, the Iranian languages and their various dialects
   (totaling an estimarted 150-200 million speakers) exceed the Iranian
   borders and are spoken throughout western China, southern Russia, and
   eastern Turkey.

   Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the
   twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years,
   Iran appears to have taken control of its high population growth rate
   and many studies show that Iran's population growth rate will continue
   to decline until stabilizing by the year 2050 at around 100 million.
   More than two-thirds of the population are under the age of 30, and the
   literacy rate is 80%.

   The Iranian diaspora is estimated at over three million people who
   emigrated to North America, Europe, South America and Australia, mostly
   after the Iranian revolution in 1979. Iran also hosts one of the
   largest refugee populations in the world, with more than one million
   refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. As recent as October 10,
   2006, Iranian officials have been working hand in hand with the UNHCR
   and Afghani officials to furthur is official government policy of
   repatriation.

   Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the
   official state religion, and about 8% belong to the Sunni branch, many
   Kurds. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, mainly
   Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians. The
   latter three minority religions are officially recognized and
   protected, and have reserved seats in the Majles (Parliament). However
   the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially
   recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since
   the 1979 revolution the persecution has increased with executions and
   the denial of access to higher education. More recent persecution
   towards Bahá'ís has led to the United Nations Special Rapporteur of the
   United Nations Commission on Human Rights stating on March 20, 2006
   that "this latest development indicates that the situation with regard
   to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating."

Major cities

   Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950
   to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to
   60%. The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will
   form 80% of the overall population. Most of the internal migrants have
   settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahwaz, and Qom. Tehran is
   the largest city with 7,160,094 inhabitants ( metropolitan:
   14,000,000). More than half of the country's industry is based there.
   Industries include the manufacturing of cars, electronics and
   electrical equipment, military weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and
   chemical products. Mashhad, one of the holiest Shi'a cities, is the
   second largest city with a population of 2.8 million.

   The population of the eight largest cities ( 2006, unless otherwise
   noted) are as follows (non-metropolitan estimates):

                    Tehran
                    7,160,094

                             Mashad
                             2,837,734

                                      Isfahan
                                      1,573,378

                                               Tabriz
                                               1,523,085

                    Karaj
                    1,460,961

                             Shiraz
                             1,279,140

                                      Qom
                                      1,046,578

                                               Ahvaz
                                               841,145

Culture

   Iran has a long history of art, music, architecture, poetry,
   philosophy, traditions, and ideology.

   The following quotes from poets belonging to a vast chronological and
   geographical expanse can be a proper exemplification of the devotion to
   Persian culture and its multimillenial penetrating existence:

   همه عالم تن است و ایران دل
   نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل
   "Iran is the Heart and all the universe, The Body,
   Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility." Nizami

   که ایران بهشت است یا بوستان
   همی بوی مشک آید از دوستان
   "Whether one thinks of Iran as Eden or Garden,
   The smell of musk abounds there from friend and companion." Ferdowsi

   بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند
   چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار دگر عضوها را نماند قرار
   "Of one Essence is the human race
   thus has Creation put the base,
   One Limb impacted is sufficient
   For all Others to feel the Mace." Saadi
   Inscribed on the United Nations' Hall of Nations
   Miniature painting by Mohammad Tajvidi on the cover of the Divan of
   Hafez ("Hafez's Anthology"), published 1969.
   Enlarge
   Miniature painting by Mohammad Tajvidi on the cover of the Divan of
   Hafez ("Hafez's Anthology"), published 1969.

   Iranian culture has long been the predominant culture of the Middle
   East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of
   intellectuals during much of the second millennium AD. Nearly all
   philosophical, scientific, or literary work of the Islamic empires was
   written in or translated to Persian, as well as Arabic. The Islamic
   conquest of Iran during the first half of the seventh century began a
   synthesis of the Arabic and Iranian tongues. By the tenth century, this
   cultural diffusion threatened to erase native Persian entirely, as many
   Persian writers, scientists, and scholars elected to write in the
   language of the Qur'an (Arabic) (see List of Iranian scientists and
   scholars). Moreover, Islamic caliphate was largely disdainful towards
   Persians and Persian culture more specifically during the rule of first
   caliphate dynasty of Umayyads who vividly sought Arabic supremacy in
   all aspects of their empire. This prompted Ferdowsi to compose the
   Shahnameh (Persian: Book of Kings), Iran's national epic from its
   legendary prehistoric nascence till its defeat at the battle of
   al-Qādisiyyah. It was written entirely in Persian. This gave rise to a
   strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part
   responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate
   language.


Iran

      ... I suffered during these thirty years, but I - the Ajam - have
    revived the Persian language; I shall not die since I am alive again,
               as I have spread the seeds of this language ...


                                                                         Iran

   Ferdowsi (935–1020)

   Iran's literary tradition is rich and varied as well, although the
   world is most familiar with Iranian poetry. Rumi is by far the most
   famous of Iran's poets, although Saadi is considered by many Iranians
   to be just as influential. Both poets were practitioners of Sufism, and
   are quoted by Iranians with the same frequency and weight as the
   Qur'an.

   Cinema has continued to thrive in modern Iran, and many Iranian
   directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. (Iranian
   movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five
   years.) One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The
   Iranian media is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and
   movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance
   before being released to the public. The state also actively monitors
   the Internet, which has become enormously popular among the Iranian
   youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.

   The quest for social justice and equity is an important Iranian
   cultural trait. The Cyrus Cylinder is considered the world's first
   declaration of human rights, and was the basis of government for the
   Achaemenid dynasty. Equality of the sexes also has a strong historical
   precedent in Iran: from the Achaemenid to Sassanid dynasties, women
   were encouraged to pursue an education and study at universities; they
   held property, influenced the affairs of state, and worked and received
   the same compensation as men. Today, women compose more than half of
   the incoming classes for universities around the country. Respect for
   the elderly and hospitality for foreigners are also an integral part of
   Iranian etiquette.

   The Iranian New Year ( Norouz) is celebrated on March 21 from Spain in
   the west to Kazakhstan in the east. It is celebrated as the first day
   of spring. Norouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the
   Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.

   Iranian food has much in common with the other cuisines of the Middle
   East, but is often considered to be the most sophisticated and
   imaginative of them all, as colorful and complex as a Persian carpet."
   | Najmieh Batmanglij, New Food of Life

Health

   According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to
   provide every citizen of the country with access to social security
   that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents,
   calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is
   covered by public revenues and income derived from public
   contributions.

   In its 2000 report on national healthcare systems, the World Health
   Organization ranks Iran's overall healthcare system performance as 93rd
   among the world's nations. The health status of Iranians has improved
   over the last two decades. Iran has been able to extend public health
   preventive services through the establishment of an extensive Primary
   Health Care network. As a result child and maternal mortality rates
   have fallen significantly, and life expectancy at birth has risen
   remarkably. Infant (IMR) and under-five (U5MR) mortality have decreased
   to 28.6 and 35.6 per 1,000 live births respectively in 2000, compared
   to an IMR of 122 per 1,000 and an U5MR of 191 per 1,000 in 1970..

Scientific progress

   An eighteenth-century Persian astrolabe. Throughout the Middle Ages,
   the natural philosophy and mathematics of the ancient Greeks and
   Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. During this
   period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of scientific
   instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the
   nineteenth century.
   Enlarge
   An eighteenth-century Persian astrolabe. Throughout the Middle Ages,
   the natural philosophy and mathematics of the ancient Greeks and
   Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. During this
   period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of scientific
   instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the
   nineteenth century.
   Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi (1236–1311),
   a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.
   Enlarge
   Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi (1236–1311),
   a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.

   Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a long history. Iranians
   contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy,
   nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. To mention just a few,
   Persians first discovered Algebra, invented the wind mill and found
   medical uses of alcohol.

   In present times, scientists in Iran are trying to revive the golden
   age of Persian science. Iran has increased its publication output
   nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in
   terms of output growth rate followed by China.

   Theoretical and computational sciences are rapidly developing in Iran.
   Theoretical physicists and chemists are regularly publishing in high
   impact factor journals. Despite the limitations in funds, facilities,
   and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly
   productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology,
   pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry.
   Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon
   Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come
   online in 2007. Iranian Biophysicists (especially molecular biophysics)
   have gained international reputation since the 1990s. High field NMR
   facilities, as well as Microcalorimetry, Circular dichroism, and
   instruments for single protein channel studies have been provided in
   Iran during recent decades. Tissue engineering and research on
   biomaterials have just started to emerge in biophysics departments. In
   late 2006, Iranian scientists cloned successfully a sheep, by somatic
   cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Isfahan.

Human rights

   Iranian history boasts the first charter of human rights ; the Persian
   Empire (Iran) established unprecedented principles of human rights in
   the 6th century BCE. Since then, the status of human rights in Iran has
   varied dramatically. Today, the violation of human rights by the
   Islamic Republic of Iran continues to be significant, despite many
   efforts by Iranian human right activists, writers, NGOs and some
   political parties. Human rights in Iran regularly faces the issues of
   governmental impunity, restricted freedom of speech, and gender
   inequality.

   According to Human Rights Watch, respect for human rights in Iran,
   especially freedom of expression and opinion, deteriorated considerably
   in 2005. The government routinely uses torture and ill-treatment in
   detention, including prolonged solitary confinement, to punish
   dissidents. The judiciary, which is accountable to Supreme Leader Ali
   Khamenei, has been at the centre of many serious human rights
   violations.

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