   #copyright

Invasion

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Military History and War

   War
   Military history
                        Eras
   Prehistoric · Ancient · Medieval
   Gunpowder · Industrial · Modern
                    Battlespace
   Air · Information · Land · Sea · Space
                      Theaters
   Arctic · Cyberspace · Desert
   Jungle · Mountain · Urban
                      Weapons
   Armoured · Artillery · Biological · Cavalry
   Chemical · Electronic · Infantry ·
   Mechanized · Nuclear · Psychological
   Radiological · Ski · Submarine
                      Tactics

   Amphibious · Asymmetric · Attrition
   Cavalry · Conventional · Fortification
   Guerrilla · Hand to hand · Invasion
   Joint · Maneuver · Siege · Total
   Trench · Unconventional
                      Strategy

   Economic · Grand · Operational
                    Organization

   Chain of command · Formations
   Ranks · Units
                     Logistics

   Equipment · Materiel · Supply line
                        Law

   Court-martial · Laws of war · Occupation
   Tribunal · War crime
              Government and politics

   Conscription · Coup d'état
   Military dictatorship · Martial law
   Militarism · Military rule
                  Military studies

   Military academy · Military science
   Polemology · Philosophy of war
   Peace and conflict studies
                       Lists
   Authors · Battles · Civil wars
   Commanders · Invasions · Operations
   Sieges · Raids · Tactics · Theorists
   Wars · War crimes · War criminals
   Weapons · Writers

   An invasion is a military action consisting of armed forces of one
   geopolitical entity entering territory controlled by another such
   entity, generally with the objective of conquering territory or
   altering the established government. An invasion can be the cause of a
   war, it can be used as a part of a larger strategy to end a war, or it
   can constitute an entire war in and of itself.

   The term usually connotes a strategic endeavor of substantial
   magnitude; because the goals of an invasion are usually large-scale and
   long-term, large forces are needed to hold territory and protect the
   interests of the invading entity. Smaller and lighter tactical
   infiltrations are not generally considered invasions, being more often
   classified as skirmishes, sorties, targeted killings, assassinations or
   reconnaissance in force. By definition, an invasion is an attack from
   outside forces. As such, rebellions, civil wars, coups d'etat, and
   internal acts of democide or other acts of oppression are generally not
   considered invasions.

Invasion as aggression

   After World War II, the Nuremberg Tribunal was convened to prosecute
   Nazi Germany officials for war crimes. In that context, the concept of
   "invasion" was abstracted in principle as "aggression," to refer to
   such hostility itself as a violation of principles prohibiting war
   crimes. Germany had begun a campaign of offenses that included the
   invasions of almost all neighboring countries in Europe, including
   Poland, France, and Russia. According to the Tribunal, aggression is:

          "the supreme international crime differing only from other war
          crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of
          the whole."

   This principle is referred to in the Nuremberg Principles, which, in
   parallel with the Geneva Conventions, is included within the United
   Nations Charter.

History

   Archaeological evidence indicates that invasions have been frequent
   since prehistory. In antiquity, before radio communications and fast
   transportation, the only way to ensure adequate reinforcements was to
   move armies as one massive force. This, by its very nature, led to the
   strategy of invasion. With invasion came the cultural exchanges in
   government, religion, philosophy, and technology that shaped the
   development of much of the ancient world.

Motives and justifications

   Invasions have normally been mounted for straightforward territorial
   gain and geopolitical advantage. Added to these motivations have often
   been the attractions of immediate looting. However, the reasons
   advanced as justifications of invasions have included restoration of
   territory lost in the past; religious idealism; policies of national
   interest; pursuit of enemies; protection of allies; acquisition of
   colonies; preemption of a real or perceived future attack; protection
   or acquisition of transportation routes or natural resources, including
   water and petroleum supplies; quelling destabilizing or unconscionable
   conflict within or between neighbors; and as punishment for a perceived
   slight.

   A relatively recent justification for invasion, which arose during the
   nineteenth century with Great Powers assuming the right to arrange
   world politics, has been to change or restore the leadership or
   political regime of a nation or territory. Often in these cases,
   opposing powers cited the motive of "protection" of the invaded
   territory. During the nineteenth century, invasions of this nature
   frequently manifested themselves under the banner of imperialism. Such
   invasions are likely to be perceived by one side as an act of
   usurpation and by the other as an act of liberation.

   A modern political trend, probably instigated by a desire to avoid
   charges of imperialism, has been for the invader to euphemistically
   label an invasion as an "intervention" to achieve a goal that is stated
   in beneficial terms.

Defenses

   The Great Wall in winter, near Beijing.
   Enlarge
   The Great Wall in winter, near Beijing.

   Nation-states with potentially hostile neighbors will typically adopt
   defensive measures to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to
   utilizing geographical barriers such as rivers, marshes, or rugged
   terrain, these measures have historically included fortifications. Such
   a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from
   entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier;
   Hadrian's Wall and the Great Wall of China and the Danewerk are famous
   examples. Such barriers have also included trench lines and, in more
   modern times, minefields, cameras, and motion-sensitive sensors.
   However, these barriers can require a large military force to provide
   the defense, as well as maintain the equipment and positions, which can
   impose a great economic burden on the country. Some of those same
   techniques can also be turned against defenders, used to keep them from
   escape or resupply. During Operation Starvation, allied forces used
   airdropped mines to severely disrupt Japanese logistical operations
   within their own borders.

   Alternately, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites,
   such as castles or forts placed near a border. These structures are
   designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to
   mobilize an army of size sufficient for defense or, in some cases,
   counter-invasion, such as for example, the Maginot Line. Forts can be
   positioned so that the garrisons can interdict the supply lines of the
   invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader
   cannot afford to bypass these defenses, and so must lay siege to the
   structures.
   The view from a battery at Ouvrage Schoenenbourg in Alsace. Notice the
   retractable turret in the right foreground.
   Enlarge
   The view from a battery at Ouvrage Schoenenbourg in Alsace. Notice the
   retractable turret in the right foreground.

   In modern times, the notion of constructing large-scale static defenses
   to combat land based threats has largely become obsolete. The use of
   precision air campaigns and large-scale mechanization have made
   lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. Nations
   defending against modern invasions normally use large population
   centers such as cities or towns as defensive points. The invader must
   capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The
   defender uses mobile armored and infantry divisions to protect these
   points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally
   retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can
   be seen in the Iraqi Army's stands in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq at
   Baghdad, Tikrit and Basra in the major combat in the Second Gulf War. A
   defender can also use these mobile assets to precipitate a
   counteroffensive like the Soviet Red Army at the Battle of Kursk or the
   Northern Alliance in Afghanistan.

   However, static emplacements remain useful in both defense against
   naval attacks and defense against air attacks. Naval mines are still an
   inexpensive but effective way to defend ports and choke off supply
   lines. Large static air defense systems that combine antiaircraft guns
   with missile launchers are still the best way to defend against air
   attacks. Such systems were used effectively by the North Vietnamese
   around Hanoi. Also, the United States has invested considerable time
   and money into the construction of a National Missile Defense system, a
   static defense grid capable of intercepting nuclear intercontinental
   ballistic missiles.

   Island nations, such as the United Kingdom or Japan, and continental
   states with extensive coasts, such as the United States, have utilized
   a significant naval presence to forestall an invasion of their country,
   rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense,
   however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and the
   ability to sustain and service that defence force.

   In particularly large nations, the defending force may also retreat in
   order to facilitate a counter attack by drawing the invaders deeper
   into hostile territory. One effect of this tactic is that the invading
   force becomes too spread out, making supply difficult and making the
   lines more susceptible to attack. This tactic, although costly, helped
   the Russians stop the German advance at Stalingrad. It can also cause
   the invading force to extend too far, allowing a pincer movement to cut
   them off from reinforcements. This was the cause of the British defeat
   at the Battle of Cowpens during the American Revolutionary War.
   Finally, sending too many reinforcements can leave too few defenders in
   the attackers' territory, allowing a counter-invasion from other areas.

Methods

   There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place,
   each method having arguments both in their favour and against. These
   include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these
   methods.

Invasion by land

   The Battle of Moscow during Operation Barbarossa.
   Enlarge
   The Battle of Moscow during Operation Barbarossa.

   Invasion over land is the straightforward entry of armed forces into an
   area using existing land connections, usually crossing borders or
   otherwise defined zones, such as a demilitarized zone, overwhelming
   defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often
   results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and
   subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard
   to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geopolitical
   entities take defensive positions in areas that are most vulnerable to
   the methods mentioned above.

   In modern warfare, invasion by land often takes place after, or
   sometimes during, attacks on the target by other means. Air strikes and
   cruise missiles launched from ships at sea are a common method of
   "softening" the target. Other, more subtle, preparations may involve
   secretly garnering popular support, assassinating potentially
   threatening political or military figures, and closing off supply lines
   where they cross into neighboring countries. In some cases, those other
   means of attack eliminate the need for ground assault; the 1945 bombing
   of Japan ultimately made it unnecessary to invade the main islands with
   infantry troops. In cases such as this, while some ground troops are
   still needed to occupy the conquered territory, they are allowed to
   enter under the terms of a treaty and as such are no longer invaders.
   As unmanned, long-range combat evolves, the instances of basic overland
   invasion become fewer; often the conventional fighting is effectively
   over before the infantry arrives in the role of peacekeepers (see "
   Applications in fourth generation warfare" in this article).

Invasion by sea

   An LCAC carrying armored vehicles ashore during the invasion of Iraq.
   Enlarge
   An LCAC carrying armored vehicles ashore during the invasion of Iraq.

   Invasion by sea is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry
   of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of
   water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with
   another method of invasion, and especially before the invention of
   flight, for cases in which there is no other method to enter the
   territory in question. Arguments in favour of this method usually
   consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that
   naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an
   attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment, such as
   amphibious vehicles and the difficulty of establishing defenses—usually
   with a resulting high casualty count—in exchange for a relatively small
   gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method.
   Underwater hazards and a lack of good cover are very common problems
   during invasions from the sea. At the Battle of Tarawa, Marine landing
   craft became hung up on a coral reef and were shelled from the beach.
   Other landers were sunk before they could reach the shore, and the
   tanks they were carrying were stranded in the water. Most of the few
   survivors of the first wave ended up pinned down on the beach. The
   island was conquered but at a heavy cost, and the loss of life sparked
   mass protests from civilians in the United States.

Invasion by air

   Thousands of paratroopers descend during Operation Market Garden.
   Enlarge
   Thousands of paratroopers descend during Operation Market Garden.

   Invasion by air is an invention of the 20th century and modern warfare.
   The idea involves sending military units into a territory by aircraft.
   The aircraft either land, allowing the military units to debark and
   attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while still in
   the air, using parachutes or similar devices to land in the territory
   being invaded. Many times air assaults have been used to pave the way
   for a ground- or sea-based invasion, by taking key positions deep
   behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads, but an entirely
   air-based invasion has never succeeded. Two immediate problems are
   resupply and reinforcement. A large airborne force cannot be adequately
   supplied without meeting up with ground forces; an airborne force too
   small simply places themselves into an immediate envelopment situation.
   Arguments in favour of this method generally relate to the ability to
   target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by
   land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming
   defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number
   of forces due to the element of surprise. Arguments against this method
   typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion—such as the
   sheer number of planes that would be needed to carry a sufficient
   number of troops—and the need for a high level of intelligence in order
   for the invasion to be successful.

   The closest examples to a true air invasion are the Battle of Crete,
   Operation Thursday (the Chindits second operation during the Burma
   Campaign) and Operation Market Garden. Operation Market Garden was an
   assault on the German-occupied Netherlands conducted in September of
   1944. Nearly 35,000 men were dropped by parachute and glider into enemy
   territory in an attempt to capture bridges from the Germans and make
   way for the Allies' advance. However, even with such a massive force
   taking the Germans completely by surprise, the assault was a tactical
   failure and after 9 days of fighting the Allies managed only to escape
   back to their own lines, having sustained over 18,000 casualties. In
   the 21st century, as vast improvements are made in anti-aircraft
   defenses, it seems that the air invasion is a strategy whose time may
   never come.

Pacification

   US forces distribute information on the streets of Kut, Iraq.
   Enlarge
   US forces distribute information on the streets of Kut, Iraq.

   Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached,
   pacification of the region is the final, and arguably the most
   important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular
   military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion
   often comes from civilian or paramilitary resistance movements.
   Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and
   usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any
   invasion.

   Media propaganda such as leaflets, books, and radio broadcasts, can be
   used to encourage resistance fighters to surrender and to dissuade
   others from joining their cause. Pacification, often referred to as
   "the winning of hearts and minds", reduces the desire for civilians to
   take up resistance. This may be accomplished through reeducation,
   allowing conquered citizens to participate in their government, or,
   especially in impoverished or besieged areas, simply by providing food,
   water, and shelter. Sometimes displays of military might are used;
   invading forces may assemble and parade through the streets of
   conquered towns, attempting to demonstrate the futility of any further
   fighting. These displays may also include public executions of enemy
   soldiers, resistance fighters, and other conspirators. Particularly in
   antiquity, the death or imprisonment of a popular leader was sometimes
   enough to bring about a quick surrender. However, this has often had
   the unintended effect of creating martyrs around which popular
   resistance can rally. An example of which was Sir William Wallace, who,
   centuries after his execution by the English, is still a symbol of
   Scottish nationalism.

   Many factors need to be taken into account when deciding which tactics
   to use during occupation and, when the wrong decisions are made, it can
   lead to years (or even centuries) of continued resistance. The problems
   caused by continued resistance may be minimal if the conquered
   territory is only needed for a short-term tactical purpose, but can
   become extremely difficult if the intent is to colonize the area or
   hold the land indefinitely.

Support

Logistics

   Without a steady flow of supplies, an invading force will soon find
   itself retreating. Before his invasion of Greece, Xerxes I spent three
   years amassing supplies from all over Asia; Herodotus wrote that the
   Persian army was so large it "drank the rivers dry".

   In most invasions, even in modern times, many fresh supplies are
   gathered from the invaded territories themselves. Before the laws of
   war, invaders often relied heavily on the supplies they would win by
   conquering towns along the way. During the Second Punic War, for
   example, Hannibal diverted his army to conquer cities simply to gather
   supplies; his strategy in crossing the alps necessitated traveling with
   as few provisions as possible, expecting the Roman stores to sustain
   them when they had breached the border. The scorched earth tactics used
   in Russia forced Napoleon to withdraw his forces due to lack of food
   and shelter. Today, the Law of land warfare forbids looting and the
   confiscation of private property, but local supplies, particularly
   perishables, are still purchased when possible for use by occupying
   forces, and airplanes often use parachutes to drop supplies to besieged
   forces. Even as rules become more strict, the necessities of war become
   more numerous; in addition to food, shelter, and ammunition, today's
   militaries require fuel, batteries, spare mechanical parts, electronic
   equipment, and many other things. In the United States, the Defense
   Logistics Agency employs over 22,000 civilians with the sole task of
   logistics support, and 30,000 soldiers graduate from the U.S. Army
   Logistics Management College each year.

Communication

   A mobile satellite communications center.
   Enlarge
   A mobile satellite communications centre.

   Another consideration is the importance of leadership being able to
   communicate with the invasion force. In ancient times, this often meant
   that a king needed to lead his armies in person to be certain his
   commands were followed, as in the case of Alexander the Great. At that
   time, the skills needed to lead troops in battle were as important as
   the skills needed to run a country during peacetime. When it was
   necessary for the king to be elsewhere, messengers would relay updates
   back to the rear, often on horseback or, in cases such as the Battle of
   Marathon, with swift runners.

   When possible, sloops and cutters were used to relay information by
   sea. The HMS Pickle brought Britain the first news that Nelson had
   defeated the French forces at the Battle of Trafalgar.

   The development of Morse Code, and later voice communications by radio
   and satellite, have allowed even small units of skirmishers to remain
   in contact with the larger invasion force, to verify orders or call for
   artillery support and air strikes. These communications were critical
   to the German blitzkrieg strategy, as infantry commanders relayed
   defensive positions to tanks and bombers.

Applications regarding non-state combatants

   In the 20th and 21st century, questions arose regarding the
   effectiveness of the invasion strategy in neutralising non-state
   combatants, a type of warfare sometimes referred to — especially in the
   US — as ' fourth generation warfare'. In this case, one or more
   combatant groups are controlled not by a centralized state government
   but by independent leadership, and these groups may be made up of
   civilians, foreign agents, mercenaries, politicians, religious leaders,
   and members of the regular military. These groups act in smaller
   numbers, are not confined by borders, and do not necessarily depend on
   the direct support of the state. Groups such as these are not easily
   defeated by straightforward invasion, or even constant occupation; the
   country's regular army may be defeated, the government may be replaced,
   but asymmetric warfare on the part of these groups can be continued
   indefinitely. Because regular armed forces units do not have the
   flexibility and independence of small covert cells, many believe that
   the concept of a powerful occupying force actually creates a
   disadvantage.

   An opposing theory holds that, in response to extremist ideology and
   unjust governments an invasion can change the government and reeducate
   the people making prolonged reistance unlikely and averting future
   violence. This theory acknowledges that these changes may take
   time—generations, in some cases—but holds that immediate benefits may
   still be won by reducing membership in, and choking the supply lines
   of, these covert cells. Proponents of the invasion strategy in such
   conflicts maintain the belief that a strong occupying force can still
   succeed in its goals on a tactical level, building upon numerous small
   victories, similar to a war of attrition.

   Contemporary debate on this issue is still fresh; neither side can
   claim to know for certain which strategies will ultimately be effective
   in defeating non-state combatants. Opponents of the invasion strategy
   point to a lack of examples in which occupying or peacekeeping forces
   have met with conclusive success. They also cite continuing conflicts
   such as Northern Ireland, Israel, Chechnya, and Iraq, as well as
   examples which they claim ultimately proved to be failures, such as
   Lebanon, and Afghanistan. Supporters of the invasion strategy hold that
   it is too soon to call those situations failures, and that patience is
   needed to see the plan through. Some say that the invasions themselves
   have, in fact, been successful, but that political opponents and the
   international media skew the facts for sensationalism or political
   gain.

Outcomes

   The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of
   both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the
   defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between
   the warring parties. The most common outcome is the loss of territory,
   generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of
   direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes
   results in the transformation of that country into a client state,
   often accompanied by requirements to pay reparations or tribute to the
   victor. In rare cases the results of a successful invasion may simply
   be a return to the status quo; this can be seen in wars of attrition,
   when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic
   objective.

Record-setting invasions

   Many records for invasions were set during World War II, at the peak of
   second and third generation warfare. The vast numbers of the armies
   involved combined with innovative tactics and technology lent
   themselves, arguably for the last time in history, to invasions on a
   massive scale.

   The largest invasion in history was 1941's Operation Barbarossa, in
   which 4,000,000 German troops blitzkrieged into Russia. The Germans
   advanced with ease at first and nearly captured Moscow, also laying
   siege to Leningrad, but soon found themselves fighting the harsh
   Russian winter and fierce Soviet resistance, and their advance ground
   to a halt at Stalingrad in early 1943.

   In the largest amphibious invasion in history, 156,215 Allied troops
   landed at Normandy to retake France from the occupying German forces
   commanded by Rommel. Though it was costly in terms of men and
   materials, the invasion advanced the Western front and forced Germany
   to redirect its forces from the Russian and Italian fronts. In
   hindsight, it is also credited with defining the Western boundary of
   Soviet communism; had the Allies not advanced, it is conceivable that
   the Soviet Union would have controlled even more of Europe than they
   eventually did.

Other examples of historically significant invasions

Assyrian invasion of the Kingdom of Israel

   Sargon II, during the course of conquering much of what is now known as
   the Middle East, defeated the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC and sent its
   inhabitants into exile. This presaged future Greek and Roman conquest
   and, later, the Crusades. To this day, the region remains contested.

Persian invasion of Greece

   In 480 BC, Xerxes I of Persia moved his armies against the loose
   confederation of city-states in what is modern-day Greece. One of the
   most famous battles of the war, fought at Thermopylae, is an early
   example of using a chokepoint to tactical advantage. Although Xerxes'
   army was vast—modern estimates put it at 250,000—the defending Greeks
   were able to hold their ground for days by using a narrow mountain pass
   to slow the Persian advance. The invasion also demonstrates the
   importance of communication and supply routes; although Xerxes' land
   battles were almost all Persian victories, the Greeks managed to cut
   off his naval support and the Persians were forced to withdraw. The
   invasion served to unify the various city-states, bringing about the
   formation of the Greek nation.

Macedonian conquest of the Persian Empire

   In 323 BC, Alexander the Great led his army into Persia, defeating
   Darius III, conquering Babylon, and taking control of the Persian
   Empire. Alexander's influence in mixing cultures led to the Hellenistic
   Age of Mesopotamia and North Africa.

The Muslim Conquests

   Following Muhammad's unification of the Arabian peninsula in 632, his
   successors in the Caliphate began a series of invasions of the Middle
   East, North Africa, Southern Europe, and South Asia. Lasting slighly
   more than a century, these conquests brought much of the ancient world
   under the banner of Islam, and instituted a scientific renaissance as
   well as a cultural and societal revolutions in these regions.

The Norman Invasion of England

   The 1066 invasion of England by William the Conqueror, and the decisive
   battle which won the war, the Battle of Hastings, were to have profound
   effects on the historical and societal development of Britain, and the
   English language itself.

The Crusades

   In a series of nine different major invasions, from 1095 to 1291, the
   Catholic Church attempted to conquer the Holy Land from its Muslim
   rulers, with varied success. As Jerusalem changed hands and European
   forces moved back and forth, in-roads to the Levant were reestablished
   and the cultures mixed on a large scale for the first time in
   centuries.

Genghis Khan’s invasions of China

   From 1206 until his death in 1227, Genghis Khan orchestrated a series
   of invasions that united much of Asia. Relying heavily on cavalry, the
   Mongol hordes were able to travel quickly yet were well-supplied. By
   1368, the Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history,
   comprised of 35 million km² (13.8 million miles²) of territory
   stretched across the continent. His eastward invasion of China created
   the Yuan Dynasty, and his westward invasion of Kiev Rus further linked
   Europe and Asia by reestablishing the Silk Road.

Conquest of the Aztec Empire

   The last of the Aztec empire was destroyed at Tenochtitlan in 1521, by
   a combination of Spanish and native forces. Aided by 2,000 local
   Tlaxcalan warriors, Hernán Cortés marched into the city. Although he
   and his men were expelled, they returned with ships and laid siege to
   the capital. Though an epidemic of smallpox took its toll on the
   Aztecs, Cortes' conquest was the culmination of Spanish strategy in the
   Americas: He used promises to gain native allies, he burned and killed
   thousands of people to strike fear into his enemies, and he combined
   superior technology with patience while he struck at Tenochtitlan from
   the sea. This opened the door to Spanish colonization of mainland
   Mesoamerican cultures.

French invasion of Russia

   In 1812, Napoleon led his Grande Armée into Russia. At that point, his
   invasion force of 691,500 men was the largest ever assembled, and for
   several weeks the Russian Army could do nothing but retreat and try to
   buy time. The first major battle between the two armies, at the Russian
   defenses of Borodino, was one of the bloodiest single days in human
   history, with estimates of at least 65,000 dead. But although the
   Russian retreat allowed the French to capture Moscow, they were left
   depleted and without shelter or supplies. Napoleon was forced to
   withdraw. Although this invasion was not the end of Napoleon, it is
   credited with fostering a powerful patriotism in Russia that would lead
   to the strengthening of the nation in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Christian Colonialism and Imperialism

   In the 15th century the Christian Nations of European began the modern
   age of colonialism with the " Age of Discovery", led by the Spanish
   colonization of the Americas and Portuguese Empire in the Americas and
   along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and East Asia. The
   Roman Catholic Church played a large role in their overseas activities
   and the enormous trade profits and riches from gold and silver mines
   allowed them to finance costly religious wars in Europe. During the
   16th and 17th centuries, England, France and Holland established their
   own overseas empires in direct competition with each other as well as
   the earlier Iberian ones, while the land based Russian Empire expanded
   across northern and central asia. These activities resulted in the
   invasions of the Indian subcontinent to set up the extensive European
   colonies in India, as well as the invasion of Africa called the
   Scramble for Africa and the colonization of the East Indies. Towards
   the 17th and 18th century the Germans and the French also joined in,
   beginning the 3rd wave of invasions that would subdue native peoples
   and economines, and expand European controlled territory over the
   majority of the globe.

   Decolonization began in the 19th century and picked up pace only after
   World War II left the European empires weakened and struggling to
   subdue the native resistance across the vast expanses of their empires.
   Debates upon the negative vs. positive impact and evaluation of
   colonialism and colonization- such as those of colonial
   Christianization, genocide, third world debt and slavery- upon the
   colonizer and the colonized continue to shape global and national
   polotics to this day.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
