   #copyright

History of democracy

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Politics and government

   The history of democracy traces back from its origins in ancient world
   to its re-emergence and rise from the 17th century to the present day.

Origins

Ancient Sumer

   The Sumerian city states are believed to have had some form of
   Democratic setup initially. They became monarchies over time.

Ancient India

   One of the earliest instances of democracy in a civilization was found
   in republics in ancient India, which were established sometime before
   the 6th century BC, and prior to the birth of Gautama Buddha. These
   republics were known as Maha Janapadas, and among these states,
   Vaishali (in what is now Bihar, India) was the world's first republic.
   The democratic Sangha, Gana and Panchayat systems were used in some of
   these republics; the Panchayat system is still used today in Indian
   villages. Later during the time of Alexander the Great in the 4th
   century BC, the Greeks wrote about the Sabarcae and Sambastai states in
   what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan, whose "form of government was
   democratic and not regal" according to Greek scholars at the time.
   Another example was Gopala's rise to power by democratic election in
   Bengal, which was documented by the Tibetan historian Taranath.

Ancient Greece

   The speaker's platform in the Pnyx, the meeting ground of the assembly
   where all the great political struggles of Athens were fought out
   during the "Golden Age". Here Athenian statesmen stood to speak, such
   as Pericles and Aristides in the 5th century BC and Demosthenes and
   Aeschines in the 4th, along with countless humbler citizens as well. In
   the background high on the Acropolis is the Parthenon, the temple of
   Athena, the city's protective goddess, looking down upon their
   deliberations.
   Enlarge
   The speaker's platform in the Pnyx, the meeting ground of the assembly
   where all the great political struggles of Athens were fought out
   during the "Golden Age". Here Athenian statesmen stood to speak, such
   as Pericles and Aristides in the 5th century BC and Demosthenes and
   Aeschines in the 4th, along with countless humbler citizens as well. In
   the background high on the Acropolis is the Parthenon, the temple of
   Athena, the city's protective goddess, looking down upon their
   deliberations.

   Athens is among the first recorded and one of the most important
   democracies in ancient times; the word "democracy" ( Greek: δημοκρατία
   - "rule by the people") was invented by Athenians in order to define
   their system of government, around 508 BC. In the next generation,
   Ephialtes of Athens had a law passed severely limiting the powers of
   the Council of the Areopagus, which deprived the Athenian nobility of
   their special powers.
     * Athenian democracy, was based on selection of officials by lot, and
       decisions in other cases by majority rule. The assembly of all male
       citizens in Athens voted on decisions directly (compare direct
       democracy). Elected officials did not determine decisions — giving
       decision-making power to elected officials was considered by the
       ancient Athenians to take away the power of the people, effectively
       making the state an oligarchy. Democracy had (and for some people
       still has) the meaning of equality in decisions and of elections in
       decisions, not the election of persons charged to decide (see
       representative democracy). Few checks on or limits to the power of
       the assembly existed, with the notable exception of the graphe
       paranomon (also voted on by the assembly), which made it illegal to
       pass a law that was contrary to another.

   One of the reasons why this system was feasible was because of the
   relatively small population of Athens, by modern standards — only
   300,000 people. Additionally, there were severe restrictions that
   dictated who had the right to participate as a citizen, which excluded
   over half of the total population. Citizenship rights were limited
   strictly to male, adult, non-slave Athenians of citizen descent.
   Therefore, women, children, slaves, foreigners and resident aliens —
   groups that together made up a majority of the city's population — had
   no right to participate in the assembly. On the other hand, modern
   democracy has its own limitations in comparison to the ancient model,
   as for most citizens participation is limited to voting, voting itself
   is usually limited to once every several years, voters merely get to
   choose their representatives in the legislative or executive branches
   (with the exception of occasional referenda), and it is those
   representatives, not the voters themselves, who have the power to
   decide in matters of state.

   Pay for political service was a democratic principle, though which
   forms of service were covered changed over time. In contrast to the
   professional wages paid to politicians and public servants under modern
   democracies, this pay was low, about as much as a man could earn doing
   unskilled manual labour. That is to say, it was aligned with the
   earning power of the very poorest citizens and intended only to cover
   what they might otherwise have earned during the days or parts of days
   they gave over to political service.

   During the golden age of classical Athens, in the 5th century BC, when
   it was hegemon of the Greek city-states, the Athenians encouraged
   democracy abroad. This led to the adoption of democratic or
   quasi-democratic forms of government in several of Athens' allies and
   dependent states. However, in the 5th century BC, the Peloponnesian War
   saw the Greek world divided between an alliance led by Athens and a
   rival coalition led by Sparta. The Spartans won and democracy was
   abolished in all the Greek city-states which had adopted it. The
   Athenians themselves restored their democracy in less than a year, but
   were no longer in a position to promote it abroad.

   Hundreds of other Greek cities were at one time or other democratic,
   but information on how their systems worked is scanty. Many will have
   followed the Athenian lead; Chios appears to have had democratic
   institutions by 575 BC, earlier than their functioning existence at
   Athens. Aristotle in the discussions in his Politics of the different
   kinds of democracies speaks of systems where the people vote only on
   the election of officeholders, but have no direct say themselves either
   on legislation or executive decisions. This would seem to be a form of
   representative democracy. (Aristotle Politics 1318b21-2; 1274a15-18;
   1281b32-4)

Roman Republic

Birth of the Republic

   The traditional founding of Rome was in 753 BC. The Etruscans, early
   Italian settlers comprised of city-states throughout central Italy
   ruled Rome for over a century; the traditional dates are 616 BC for the
   accession of the first Etruscan King, Tarquinius Priscus, and 510 BC
   for the expulsion of the last king, Tarquinius Superbus. The king was
   expelled by a group of aristocrats led by Lucius Junius Brutus. The
   Tarquins were expelled from Rome, and a constitution devised, whereby
   power rested in the hands of the Roman senate (the assembly of leading
   citizens), who delegated executive power in a pair of consuls who were
   elected from among their number to serve for one year.

   The founding of the Republic did not mark the end for Roman troubles,
   since the new constitution was not flawless and there remained powerful
   external enemies. Internally, one serious threat was internecine
   feuding of the leading families. Another was the struggle between the
   leading families(patricians) as a whole and the rest of the population,
   especially the plebeians. After years of conflicts the plebs forced the
   senate to pass a written series of laws(the Twelve Tables) which
   recognized certain rights and gave the plebs their own representatives,
   the tribunes. By the 4th Century BC, the plebs were given the right to
   stand for consulship and other major offices of the state.

   Rome became the ruler of a great Mediterranean empire. The new
   provinces brought wealth to Italy, and fortunes were made through
   mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates. Slaves were
   imported to Italy and wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and
   displace the original peasant farmers. By the late 2nd Century this led
   to renewed conflict between the rich and poor and demands from the
   latter for reform of constitution. The background of social unease and
   the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to
   the needs of the growing empire led to the rise of a series of
   over-mighty generals, championing the cause of either the rich or the
   poor, in the last century BC.

Fall of the Republic

   The beginning of the end of the Republic came when the brothers
   Gracchus challenged the traditional constitutional order in the 130s
   and 120s BC. Though members of the aristocracy themselves, they sought
   to parcel out public land to the dispossessed Italian peasant farmers.
   Other measures followed, but many senators feared the Gracchi's policy
   and both brothers met violent deaths. The next champion of the people
   was the great general Gaius Marius, He departed from established
   practice by recruiting his soldiers not only from landed citizens but
   from landless citizens, including the growing urban proletariat. These
   were people when the wars were over looked to their commander for a
   more permanent reward in the shape of land of their own. Thus the
   situation developed where commanders and their armies banded together
   in pursuit of political objectives, the commanders seeking power and
   the soldiers rewards.

   The temporary ascendancy achieved by Marius was eclipsed by that of
   Sulla in the 80s BC. Sulla marched on Rome after his command of the
   Roman invasion force that was to invade Pontus was transferred to
   Sulla's rival Marius. Leaving Rome damaged and terrorized, Sulla retook
   command of the Eastern army and after placing loyal puppets to the
   consul he marched for the conquest of Pontus. When Sulla returned to
   Rome, there was opposition to his rule by those loyal to Marius and his
   followers. Sulla, with the aid of a young Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
   (Pompey the Great) and Marcus Licinius Crassus, quelled the political
   opposition and had himself made dictator of Rome. Sulla was a staunch
   proponent of aristocratic privilege, and his short-lived monarchy saw
   the repeal of pro-popular legislation and condemnation, usually without
   trial, of thousands of his enemies to violent deaths and exile.

   After Sulla's death, democracy was more or less restored under Pompey
   the Great. Despite his popularity he was faced with two astute
   political opponents: the immensely wealthy Crassus and Julius Caesar.
   Rather than coming to blows, the three men reached a political
   accommodation now known as the First Triumvirate. Caesar was awarded
   governor of two Gallic provinces (what is now modern day France). He
   embarked on a campaign of conquest, the Gallic War, which resulted in a
   huge accession of new territory and vast wealth not to mention an
   extremely battle hardened army after 8 years of fighting the Gauls. In
   50 BC Caesar was recalled to Rome to disband his legions and was put on
   trial for his illegal war crimes. Caesar, not able to accept this
   insult after his fantastic conquest, crossed the Rubicon with his loyal
   Roman legions in 49 BC. Caesar was considered an enemy and traitor of
   Rome, and he was now matched against the Senate, led by Pompey the
   Great. This led to a violent Civil War between Caesar and the Republic.
   The senators and Pompey were no match for Caesar and his veteran
   legions and this culminated in the Battle of Pharsalus, where Caesar,
   although outnumbered, destroyed Pompey's legions. Pompey, who had fled
   to Egypt, was murdered and beheaded.

   Finally, Caesar took supreme power and was appointed Dictator for life
   over the Roman Republic. Caesar's career was cut short by his
   assassination at Rome in 44 BC by Marcus Junius Brutus, the descendant
   of the Brutus who expelled the Etruscan King four and half centuries
   before. In 27 BC Octavian, Caesar's adoptive son, was granted the title
   Augustus by the Senate, making him the first official emperor of Rome.
   The Roman Republic of the senate and the people came to an end and thus
   began the age of the Emperors. The Roman Empire expanded and lasted
   until its fall in 476 AD.

Local popular institutions

   Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker is teaching the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung
   that the power resides with the people, 1018, Uppsala, by C. Krogh
   Enlarge
   Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker is teaching the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung
   that the power resides with the people, 1018, Uppsala, by C. Krogh

   Most of the procedures used by modern democracies are very old. Almost
   all cultures have at some time had their new leaders approved, or at
   least accepted, by the people; and have changed the laws only after
   consultation with the assembly of the people or their leaders. Such
   institutions existed since before the Iliad or the Odyssey, and modern
   democracies are often derived or inspired by them, or what remained of
   them. Nevertheless, the direct result of these institutions was not
   always a democracy. It was often a narrow oligarchy, as in Venice, or
   even an absolute monarchy, as in Florence.

   These early institutions include:
     * The panchayats in India
     * The German tribal system described by Tacitus in his Germania.
     * The Frankish custom of the Marzfeld or "March field".
     * The Althing, the "parliament" of the Icelandic Commonwealth, was
       founded in 930. It consisted of the 39, later 55, goðar; each owner
       of a goðarð; and membership, which could in principle be lent or
       sold, was kept tight hold of by each hereditary goði. Thus, for
       example, when Burnt Njal's stepson wanted to enter it, Njal had to
       persuade the Althing to enlarge itself so a seat would be
       available. The Althing was preceded by less elaborate " things"
       (assemblies) all over Northern Europe.
     * The Thing of all Swedes, which was held annually at Uppsala in the
       end of February or early March. Like in Iceland, the assemblies
       were presided by the lawspeaker, but the Swedish king functioned as
       a judge. A famous incident took place circa 1018, when King Olof
       Skötkonung wanted to pursue the war against Norway against the will
       of the people. Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker reminded the king in a long
       speech that the power resided with the Swedish people and not with
       the king. When the king heard the din of swords beating the shields
       in support of Þorgnýr's speech, he gave in. Adam of Bremen wrote
       that the people used to obey the king only when they thought he
       made sense.
     * The tuatha system in early medieval Ireland. Landowners and the
       masters of a profession or craft were members of a local assembly,
       known as a tuath. The members of a tuath were of common descent,
       although outsiders could be adopted. Each tuath met in annual
       assembly which approved all common policies, declared war or peace
       on other tuatha, and accepted the election of a new "king";
       normally during the old king's lifetime, as a tanist. The new king
       had to be descended within four generations from a previous king,
       so this usually became, in practice, a hereditary kingship;
       although some kingships alternated between lines of cousins. About
       80 to 100 tuatha coexisted at any time throughout Ireland. Each
       tuath controlled a more or less compact area of land which it could
       pretty much defend from cattle-raids, and this was divided among
       its members.
     * The city-states of medieval Italy, of which Venice and Florence
       were the most successful, and similar city-states in Switzerland,
       Flanders and the Hanseatic league. These were often closer to an
       oligarchy than a democracy in practice, and were, in any case, not
       nearly as democratic as the Athenian-influenced city-states of
       Ancient Greece (discussed in the above section), but they served as
       focal points for early modern democracy.
     * Veche, Wiec - popular assemblies in Slavic countries. In Poland
       wiece have developed in 1182 into Sejm - Polish parliament. The
       veche was the highest legislature and judicial authority in the
       republics of Novgorod until 1478 and Pskov until 1510.
     * Rise of parliamentary bodies in other European countries.

Rise of democracy in modern national governments

Pre-Eighteenth century milestones

   Renaissance humanism was a cultural movement in Europe beginning in
   central Italy (particularly Florence) in the last decades of the 14th
   century. It revived and refined the study of language (First Latin, and
   then the Greek language by mid-century), science, philosophy, art and
   poetry of classical antiquity. The "revival" was based on
   interpretations of Roman and Greek texts. Their emphasis on art and the
   senses marked a great change from the medieval values of humility,
   introspection, and passivity.

   The humanist philosophers looked for secular principles on which
   society could be organized, as opposed to the concentration of
   political power in the hands of the Church. Prior to the Renaissance,
   religion had been the dominant force in politics for a thousand years.

   Humanists looked at ancient Greece and found the concept of democracy.
   In some cases they began to implement it (to a limited extent) in
   practice:
   The free election of Augustus II at Wola, outside Warsaw,
   Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in 1697. Painted by Bernardo Bellotto
   Enlarge
   The free election of Augustus II at Wola, outside Warsaw,
   Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in 1697. Painted by Bernardo Bellotto
     * Introduction of the idea that powerholders are responsible to an
       electorate — Simon de Montfort (1265) (although only landowners
       were allowed to vote in the 1265 English election)
     * Rise of Golden Liberty (Nobles' Democracy, Rzeczpospolita
       Szlachecka) in the Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian
       Commonwealth: Nihil novi of 1505, Pacta conventa and King Henry's
       Articles (1573). See also: Szlachta history and political
       privileges, Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian
       Commonwealth, Organisation and politics of the Polish-Lithuanian
       Commonwealth.
     * Rise of democratic parliaments in England and Scotland: Magna Carta
       (1215) limiting the authority of powerholders, First elected
       parliament (1265), English Civil War (1642-1651), Habeas Corpus Act
       (1679), English Bill of Rights and Scottish Claim of Right (1689).
       See also: other documents listed at the Constitution of the United
       Kingdom, History of the parliament of the United Kingdom.
     * William Penn wrote his Frame of Government of Pennsylvania in 1682.
       The document gave the colony a representative legislature and
       granted liberal freedoms to the colony's citizens.

Eighteenth and nineteenth century milestones

     * 1755: The Corsican republic led by Pasquale Paoli with the Corsican
       Constitution
     * 1760s-1790s Americans develop and apply concept of Republicanism;
       basis of American Revolution
          + Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 (based on the British
            Bill of Rights)
          + United States Constitution ratified in 1789 and the new United
            States Bill of Rights
     * 1780s: development of social movements identifying themselves with
       the term 'democracy': Political clashes between 'aristocrats' and
       'democrats' in Benelux countries changed the semi-negative meaning
       of the word 'democracy' in Europe, which was until then regarded as
       synonymous with anarchy, into a much more positive opposite of
       'aristocracy'.
     * From late 1770s: new Constitutions and Bills explicitly describing
       and limiting the authority of powerholders, many based on the
       British Bill of Rights (1689). Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791
       is widely recognized as the third oldest constitution in the world.
     * 1791: The Haitian Revolution, the first, and only, successful slave
       revolution, established a free republic.
     * 1789-1799: the French Revolution
     * 1790s First Party System in U.S. involves invention of
       locally-rooted political parties in the United States; networks of
       party newspapers; new canvassing techniques; use of caucus to
       select candidates; fixed party names; party loyalty; party platform
       (Jefferson 1799); peaceful transition between parties (1800)
          + Early 19th century: in Europe rise of political parties
            competing for votes.
     * Extension of political rights to various social classes:
       elimination of wealth, property, sex, race and similar requirements
       for voting (See also universal suffrage).
     * 1850s: introduction of the secret ballot in Australia; 1890 in USA

The secret ballot

   The notion of a secret ballot, where one is entitled to the privacy of
   their votes, is taken for granted by most today by virtue of the fact
   that it is simply considered the norm. However, this practice was
   highly controversial in the 19th century; it was widely argued that no
   man would want to keep his vote secret unless he was ashamed of it.

   The two earliest systems used were the Victorian method and the South
   Australian method. Both were introduced in 1856 to voters in Victoria
   and South Australia. The Victorian method involved voters crossing out
   all the candidates whom he did not approve of. The South Australian
   method, which is more similar to what most democracies use today, had
   voters put a mark in the preferred candidate's corresponding box. The
   Victorian voting system also was not completely secret, as it was
   traceable by a special number.

20th century waves of democracy

   The end of the First World War was a temporary victory for democracy in
   Europe, as it was preserved in France and temporarily extended to
   Germany. Already in 1906 full modern democratic rights, universal
   suffrage for all citizens was implemented constitutionally in Finland
   as well as an proportional representation, open list system. Likewise,
   the February Revolution in Russia in 1917 inaugurated a few months of
   liberal democracy under Alexander Kerensky until Lenin took over in
   October. The terrific economic impact of the Great Depression hurt
   democratic forces in many countries. The 1930s became a decade of
   dictators in Europe and Latin America.

   World War II was ultimately a victory for democracy in Western Europe,
   where representative governments were established that reflected the
   general will of their citizens. However, the countries of Central and
   Eastern Europe became undemocratic Soviet satellite states. In Southern
   Europe, a number of right-wing authoritarian dictatorships (most
   notably in Spain and Portugal) continued to exist.

   Japan had moved towards democracy during the Taishō period during the
   1920s, but it was under effective military rule in the years before and
   during World War II. The country adopted a new constitution during the
   postwar Allied occupation, with initial elections in 1946.

   India became a democratic republic in 1950 on achieving independence
   from Great Britain. A process of decolonization created much political
   upheaval in Africa, with some countries experiencing often rapid
   changes to and from democratic and other forms of government. In
   Southeast Asia, political divisions in both Korea and Vietnam would
   escalate into wars with heavy involvement from the West, China and the
   Soviet Union.
   Countries highlighted in blue are designated "Electoral Democracies" in
   Freedom House's 2006 survey Freedom in the World.
   Enlarge
   Countries highlighted in blue are designated " Electoral Democracies"
   in Freedom House's 2006 survey Freedom in the World.

   New waves of democracy swept across Europe in the 1970s and late 1980s,
   when representative governments were instituted in the nations of
   Southern, Central and Eastern Europe respectively.

   Much of Latin America and Southeast Asia, Taiwan and South Korea and
   some Arab and African states—notably Lebanon and the Palestinian
   Authority—moved towards greater liberal democracy in the 1990s and
   2000s.

   An analysis by Freedom House argues that there was not a single liberal
   democracy with universal suffrage in the world in 1900, but that in
   2000 120 of the world's 192 nations, or 62% were such democracies. They
   count 25 nations, or 19% of the world's nations with "restricted
   democratic practices" in 1900 and 16, or 8% of the world's nations
   today. They counted 19 constitutional monarchies in 1900, forming 14%
   of the world's nations, where a constitution limited the powers of the
   monarch, and with some power devolved to elected legislatures, and none
   in the present. Other nations had, and have, various forms of
   non-democratic rule. While the specifics may be open to debate (for
   example, New Zealand actually enacted universal suffrage in 1893, but
   is discounted due to a lack of complete sovereignty and certain
   restrictions on the Māori vote), the numbers are indicitive of the
   expansion of democracy during the twentieth century.

Contemporary trends

     * E-democracy

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