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History of Buddhism

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements,
traditions and organizations

   The History of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BCE to the present,
   starting with the birth of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. This makes it
   one of the oldest religions practiced today. Throughout this period,
   the religion evolved as it encountered various countries and cultures,
   adding to its original Indian foundation Hellenistic as well as Central
   Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cultural elements. In the
   process, its geographical extent became considerable so as to affect at
   one time or another most of the Asian continent. The history of
   Buddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements
   and schisms, foremost among them the Theravada, Mahāyāna and Vajrayana
   traditions, punctuated by contrasting periods of expansion and retreat.

Life of the Buddha

   According to the Buddhist tradition, the historical Buddha Siddharta
   Gautama was born to the Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha
   period (546–324 BCE), in the plains of Lumbini, Southern Nepal. He is
   also known as the Shakyamuni (literally "The sage of the Shakya clan").

   After an early life of luxury under the protection of his father,
   Śuddhodana, the ruler of Kapilavastu (later to be incorporated into the
   state of Magadha), Siddharta entered into contact with the realities of
   the world and concluded that real life was about inescapable suffering
   and sorrow. Siddharta renounced his meaningless life of luxury to
   become an ascetic. He ultimately decided that asceticism was also
   meaningless, and instead chose a middle way, a path of moderation away
   from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

   Under a fig tree, now known as the Bodhi tree, he vowed never to leave
   the position until he found Truth. At the age of 35, he attained
   Enlightenment. He was then known as Gautama Buddha, or simply "The
   Buddha", which means "the enlightened one".

   For the remaining 45 years of his life, he travelled the Gangetic Plain
   of central India (region of the Ganges/Ganga river and its
   tributaries), teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely
   diverse range of people.

   The Buddha's reluctance to name a successor or to formalise his
   doctrine led to the emergence of many movements during the next 400
   years: first the schools of Nikaya Buddhism, of which only Theravada
   remains today, and then the formation of Mahayana, a pan-Buddhist
   movement based on the acceptance of new scriptures.

Early Buddhism

   Before the royal sponsorship of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century
   BCE, Buddhism seems to have remained a relatively minor phenomenon, and
   the historicity of its formative events is poorly established. Two
   formative councils are supposed to have taken place, although our
   knowledge of them is based on much later accounts. The councils tend to
   explain the formalization of the Buddhist doctrine, and the various
   subsequent schisms inside the Buddhist movement.

1st Buddhist council (5th c. BCE)

   The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha
   under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of the Magadha empire, and
   presided by a monk named Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha (today's Rajgir).
   The objective of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings (
   sutra) and codify monastic rules (vinaya): Ananda, one of the Buddha's
   main disciples and his cousin, was called upon to recite the discourses
   of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the
   vinaya. These became the basis of the Pali Canon, which has been the
   orthodox text of reference throughout the history of Buddhism.

2nd Buddhist council (383 BCE)

   The second Buddhist council was convened by King Kalasoka and held at
   Vaisali, following conflicts between the traditional schools of
   Buddhism and a more liberal interpretational movement called the
   Mahasanghikas. The traditional schools considered the Buddha as a human
   being who reached enlightenment, which could be most easily attained by
   monks following the monastic rules and practicing the teaching for the
   sake of overcoming suffering and attaining Arahantship. The
   secessionist Mahasangikas, however, tended to consider this approach
   too individualistic and selfish. They considered the objective of
   becoming an arhat insufficient, and instead proposed that the only true
   goal was to reach full buddhahood, in a sense opening the way to future
   Mahāyāna thought. They became proponents of more relaxed monastic
   rules, which could appeal to a large majority of monastic and lay
   people (hence their name the "great" or "majority" assembly).

   The council ended with the rejection of the Mahasanghikas. They left
   the council and maintained themselves for several centuries in
   northwestern India and Central Asia according to Kharoshti inscriptions
   found near the Oxus and dated c. 1st century CE.

Ashokan proselytism (c. 261 BCE)

   Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi,
   sandstone. British Museum.
   Enlarge
   Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi,
   sandstone. British Museum.

   The Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE) converted to
   Buddhism after his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga (today's
   Orissa) in eastern India. Regretful of the horrors brought by the
   conflict, the king decided to renounce violence, and propagate the
   faith by building stupas and pillars urging for the respect of all
   animal life, and enjoining people to follow the Dharma. He also built
   roads, hospitals, resthouses, universities and irrigation systems
   around the country. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of
   their religion, politics or caste.

   This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According
   to the plates and pillars left by Ashoka (the Edicts of Ashoka),
   emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism,
   as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West, in particular the neighboring
   Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean.

3rd Buddhist council (c.250 BCE)

   King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at
   Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta. The
   objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of
   Buddhism, to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from
   opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage,
   and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout the
   known world.

   The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the
   "Three Baskets"), which comprises the texts of reference of traditional
   Buddhism and is considered to be directly transmitted from the Buddha,
   was formalized at that time. It consists of the doctrine (the Sutra
   Pitaka), the monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka) and an additional new
   body of subtle philosophy (the Abhidharma Pitaka).

   The efforts of Ashoka to purify the Buddhist faith also had the effect
   of segregating against other emerging movements. In particular, after
   250 BCE, the Sarvastivadin (who had been rejected by the 3rd council,
   according to the Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka schools
   became quite influential in northwestern India and Central Asia, up to
   the time of the Kushan Empire in the first centuries of the common era.
   The Dharmaguptakas were characterized by a belief that Buddha was
   separate, and above, the rest of the Buddhist community. The
   Sarvastivadin believed that past, present, and future are all
   simultaneous.

Hellenistic world

   Some of the Edicts of Ashoka inscriptions describe the efforts made by
   Ashoka to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic
   world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from the
   borders of India to Greece. The Edicts indicate a clear understanding
   of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and
   location of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and
   they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II
   Theos of the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of
   Egypt (285–247 BCE), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE),
   Magas of Cyrene (288–258 BCE), and Alexander II of Epirus (272–255
   BCE).
   Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE),
   according to the Edicts of Ashoka.
   Enlarge
   Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE),
   according to the Edicts of Ashoka.

          "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and
          even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek
          king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named
          Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the
          south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni
          (Sri Lanka)." ( Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

   Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashoka's emissaries
   were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between
   the two cultures:

          "When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the
          religion of the Conqueror (Ashoka), had brought the (third)
          council to an end (...) he sent forth theras, one here and one
          there: (...) and to Aparantaka (the "Western countries"
          corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek ( Yona)
          named Dhammarakkhita". ( Mahavamsa XII).

   Bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from
   Kandahar. Kabul Museum (click image for full translation).
   Enlarge
   Bilingual inscription ( Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from
   Kandahar. Kabul Museum (click image for full translation).

   Ashoka also issued Edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic.
   One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "Piety"
   (using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community:

          "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses
          (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (Greek:εὐσέβεια,
          Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more
          pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world."
          (Trans. from the Greek original by G.P. Carratelli)

   It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential,
   but some authors have commented that some level of syncretism between
   Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have started in Hellenic lands at
   that time. They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in
   the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in Alexandria
   (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic
   order of the Therapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pali word "
   Theravada"), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from
   the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism" (Robert Lissen).

   Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in
   Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel (Tarn, "The
   Greeks in Bactria and India"). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists
   in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that “It was later
   in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity
   were established” (Robert Linssen "Zen living").

   In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist Clement of Alexandria
   recognized Bactrian Buddhists ( Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for
   their influence on Greek thought:

          "Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in
          antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the
          nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks
          were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the
          Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas
          among the Bactrians ("Σαρμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers
          of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the
          Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a
          star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the
          other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two
          classes, some of them called Sramanas ("Σαρμάναι"), and others
          Brahmins ("Βραφμαναι")." Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or
          Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV

The Two Fourth Councils

   A Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the
   Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir.
   Because Therevada believes the The Fourth Council of Kashmir introduced
   unauthentic sutras as authentic, and it was itself not present at this
   Fourth Council to prevent this, Theravāda Buddhism does not recognize
   the authenticity of this council, and sometimes they call it the
   “council of heretical monks”. Theravada Buddhism had its own Fourth
   Council in Sri Lanka. Therefore there are two Fourth Councils: one in
   Sri Lanka (Theravada), and one in Kashmir (Sarvastivadin).

   It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir, Kanishka gathered
   500 monks headed by Vasumitra, partly, it seems, to compile extensive
   commentaries on the Abhidharma, although it is possible that some
   editorial work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. The main
   fruit of this Council was the redaction of Agamas and complilation of
   the vast commentary known as the Mahā-Vibhāshā ("Great Exegesis"), an
   extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the
   Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma.

   Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant
   change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by
   converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit. Although this
   change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to
   the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was
   the official holy language of Brahmanism in India, and was also being
   used by other thinkers (regardless of their specific religious or
   philosophical allegiance), thus enabling a far wider audience to gain
   access to Buddhist ideas and practices. For this reason, all major
   (Mahayana) Buddhist scholars in India thereafter wrote their
   commentaries and treatises in Sanskrit. Therevada however never
   switched to Sanskrit, partly because Buddha explicitly forbade
   translation of his discourses into Sanskrit because it was an elitist
   religious language (like Latin was in Europe before). He wanted his
   monks to use a local language instead; a language which could be
   understood by all. Over time however, the language of the Theravadin
   scriptures ( Pali) became a scholarly or elitist language as well.

Asian expansion

   In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (today's Burma), Indian
   culture strongly influenced the Mons. The Mons are said to have been
   converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the
   Indian king Ashoka, before the fission between Mahayana and Hinayana
   Buddhism. Early Mon Buddhist temples, such as Peikthano in central
   Burma, have been dated between the 1st and the 5th century CE.
   Mons Wheel of the Law (Dharmachakra), art of Dvaravati, c.8th century.
   Enlarge
   Mons Wheel of the Law ( Dharmachakra), art of Dvaravati, c.8th century.

   The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian
   art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style
   spread widely in South-East Asia following the expansion of the Mon
   kingdom between the 5th and 8th centuries. The Theravada faith expanded
   in the northern parts of Southeast Asia under Mon influence, until it
   was progressively displaced by Mahayana Buddhism from around the 6th
   century CE.

   Sri Lanka was allegedly proselytized by Ashoka's son Mahinda and six
   companions during the 2nd century BCE. They converted the king
   Devanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. This is when the Mahavihara
   monastery, a centre of Sinhalese orthodoxy, was built. The Pali Canon
   was put in writing in Sri Lanka during the reign of king Vittagamani
   (r. 29–17 BCE), and the Theravada tradition flourished there,
   harbouring some great commentators such as Buddhaghosa (4th–5th
   century). Although Mahayana Buddhism gained some influence at that
   time, Theravada ultimately prevailed, and Sri Lanka turned out to be
   the last stronghold of Theravada Buddhism, from where it would expand
   again to South-East Asia from the 11th century.

   There is also a legend, not directly validated by the edicts, that
   Ashoka sent a missionary to the north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan
   in the Tarim Basin, then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an
   Indo-European language.

Rise of the Sunga (2nd–1st c.BCE)

   The Sunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established in 185 BCE, about 50
   years after Ashoka's death. After deposing King Brhadrata (last of the
   Mauryan rulers), military commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga took the
   throne. An orthodox Brahmin, Sunga was allegedly hostile towards
   Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. He is recorded
   as having "destroyed monasteries and killed Monks" (Divyavadana, pp.
   429–434): 84,000 Buddhist stupas which had been built by Ashoka were
   "destroyed" (R. Thaper), and 100 gold coins were offered for the head
   of each Buddhist monk (Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXII, p. 81 ff
   cited in Hars.407). A large number of Buddhist monasteries ( viharas)
   were said to have been converted to Hindu temples, in such places as
   Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura.

   During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following
   either the Northern road (Uttarapatha) or the Southern road
   (Daksinapatha). Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the
   old Magadha area, to reposition itself either in Northwest area of
   Gandhara and Mathura, or in the Southeast around Amaravati. Some
   artistic activity also occurred in central India, as in Bharhut, to
   which the Sungas may or may not have contributed.

Greco-Buddhist interaction (2nd c. BCE–1st c. CE)

   Silver drachm of Menander I (reigned c. 160–135 BCE). Obv: Greek
   legend, BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY lit. "of the Saviour King Menander".
   Enlarge
   Silver drachm of Menander I (reigned c. 160–135 BCE).
   Obv: Greek legend, BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY lit. "of the Saviour King
   Menander".

   In the areas west of the Indian subcontinent, neighboring Greek
   kingdoms had been in place in Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan)
   since the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great around 326 BCE:
   first the Seleucids from around 323 BCE, then the Greco-Bactrian
   kingdom from around 250 BCE.
   A Greco-Buddhist statue, one of the first representations of the
   Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, Gandhara.
   Enlarge
   A Greco-Buddhist statue, one of the first representations of the
   Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, Gandhara.

   The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE as far as
   Pataliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last in
   various part of northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE.
   Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been
   suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their
   support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from
   the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73 BCE).

   One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned c. 160–135
   BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in the
   Mahayana tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a
   par with king Ashoka or the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menander's
   coins bear the mention "Saviour king" in Greek, and sometimes designs
   of the eight-spoked wheel. Direct cultural exchange is also suggested
   by the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between Menander and the monk
   Nagasena around 160 BCE. Upon his death, the honour of sharing his
   remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were
   enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha ( Plutarch,
   Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6). Several of Menander's Indo-Greek successors
   inscribed the mention "Follower of the Dharma" in the Kharoshthi script
   on their coins, and depicted themselves or their divinities forming the
   vitarka mudra.

   The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures may have had some
   influence on the evolution of Mahayana, as the faith developed its
   sophisticated philosophical approach and a man-god treatment of the
   Buddha somewhat reminiscent of Hellenic gods. It is also around that
   time that the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are
   found, often in realistic Greco-Buddhist style: "One might regard the
   classical influence as including the general idea of representing a
   man-god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in
   the West, and it is very likely that the example of westerner's
   treatment of their gods was indeed an important factor in the
   innovation" (Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" ).

Rise of Mahayana (1st c.BCE–2nd c.CE)

   The rise of Mahayana Buddhism from the 1st century BCE was accompanied
   by complex political changes in northwestern India. The Indo-Greek
   kingdoms were gradually overwhelmed, and their culture assimilated by
   the Indo-Scythians, and then the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan Empire
   from around 12 BCE.
   Coin of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, with the Buddha on the reverse,
   and his name "BODDO" in Greek script, minted circa 120 CE.
   Enlarge
   Coin of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, with the Buddha on the reverse,
   and his name "BODDO" in Greek script, minted circa 120 CE.

   The Kushans were supportive of Buddhism, and a fourth Buddhist council
   was convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar
   or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of
   Mahayana Buddhism and its secession from Theravada Buddhism. Theravada
   Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is
   sometimes called the "council of heretical monks".

   It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by
   Vasumitra, to edit the Tripitaka and make references and remarks.
   Allegedly, during the council there were all together three hundred
   thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took
   twelve years to complete. This council did not rely on the original
   Pali canon (the Tipitaka). Instead, a set of new scriptures was
   approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The
   new scriptures, usually in the Gandhari vernacular and the Kharosthi
   script, were rewritten in the classical language of Sanskrit, to many
   scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

   The new form of Buddhism was characterized by an almost God-like
   treatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a
   Buddha-nature and should aspire to Buddhahood, and by a syncretism due
   to the various cultural influences within northwestern India and the
   Kushan Empire.

Mahayana expansion (1st c.CE–10th c.CE)

   Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st–10th century CE.
   Enlarge
   Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st–10th century CE.

   From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was
   to flourish and spread in the East from India to South-East Asia, and
   towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan
   in 538 CE.

India

   After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in India during the
   dynasty of the Guptas (4th-6th century). Mahayana centers of learning
   were established, especially at Nalanda in north-eastern India, which
   was to become the largest and most influential Buddhist university for
   many centuries, with famous teachers such as Nagarjuna. The Gupta style
   of Buddhist art became very influential from South-East Asia to China
   as the faith was spreading there.
   Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire.
   Enlarge
   Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire.

   Indian Buddhism had weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun
   invasions and Mihirkulas persecution.

   Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century of
   Buddhism being popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today
   rougly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and
   Tamil Nadu. While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around
   modern day Nepal and the persecution of buddhists by Ssanka in the
   Kingdom of Gouda. (In modern day West Bengal.) Xuanzang compliments the
   patronage of Harshavardana during the same period. After Harshavardanas
   kingdom, the rise of many small kingdoms that lead to the rise of the
   Rajputs across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist
   ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a
   revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Here Mahayana
   Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim between the 8th and
   the 12th century before the Palas collapsed under the assault of the
   Hindu Sena dynasty. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive
   school of Buddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that in various
   regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism. By the 10th
   century Buddhism had experienced a sharp decline beyond the Pala realms
   in Bengal under a resurgent Hinduism and the incorporation in
   Vaishnavite Hinduism of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.

   A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in
   1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji burnt Nalanda.
   By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the
   Buddhist strongholds in Bihar, and the loss of political support
   coupled with social and caste pressures, the practice of Buddhism
   retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri Lanka in the
   south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to
   Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhakti
   movement and the missionary work of Sufis.

Central and Northern Asia

Central Asia

   Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almost since the
   time of the Buddha. According to a legend preserved in Pali, the
   language of the Theravada canon, two merchant brothers from Bactria,
   named Tapassu and Bhallika, visited the Buddha and became his
   disciples. They then returned to Bactria and built temples to the
   Buddha (Foltz).

   Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China,
   India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the
   Former Han to the west brought them into contact with the Hellenistic
   civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms.
   Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north led to the formation
   of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oases of
   Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of
   Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main
   objectives was to welcome and service travelers between east and west.

   The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before
   combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE
   to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal
   Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient
   states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to
   China. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the
   Turki- Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It
   was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also
   Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and
   followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized
   systems of belief.

   Various Nikaya schools persisted in Central Asia and China until around
   the 7th century CE. Mahayana started to become dominant during the
   period, but since the faith had not developed a Nikaya approach,
   Sarvastivadin and Dharmaguptakas remained the Vinayas of choice in
   Central Asian monasteries.

   Various Buddhism kingdoms rose and prospered in both the Central Asian
   region and downwards into the Indian sub-continent such as Kushan
   Empire prior to the White Hun invasion in the 5th century where under
   the King Mihirkula they were heavily persecuted.

   Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansion of Islam
   and the destruction of many stupas in war from the 7th century. The
   Muslims accorded them the status of dhimmis as "people of the Book",
   such as Christianity or Judaism and Al-Biruni wrote of Buddha as
   prophet "burxan".

   Buddhism saw a surge during the reign of Mongols following the invasion
   of Genghis Khan and the establishment of the Il Khanate and the
   Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influence with them during
   the 13th century, however within a 100 years the Mongols would convert
   to Islam and spread Islam across all the regions across central asia.

Parthia

   Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least to the area
   of Merv, in ancient Margiana, today's territory of Turkmenistan. Soviet
   archeological teams have excavated in Giaur Kala, near Merv, a Buddhist
   chapel, a gigantic Buddha statue, as well as a monastery.

   Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism: An
   Shigao (c. 148 CE), a Parthian prince, went to China, and is the first
   known translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

Tarim Basin

   Blue-eyed Central Asian and East-Asian Buddhist monks, Bezaklik,
   Eastern Tarim Basin, 9th-10th century.
   Enlarge
   Blue-eyed Central Asian and East-Asian Buddhist monks, Bezaklik,
   Eastern Tarim Basin, 9th-10th century.

   The eastern part of central Asia ( Chinese Turkestan, Tarim Basin,
   Xinjiang) has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art (wall
   paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvas,
   sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indian
   and Hellenistic cultures. Serindian art is highly reminiscent of the
   Gandharan style, and scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharosthi have
   been found.

   Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmission of
   Buddhism to the East. The first translators of Buddhists scriptures
   into Chinese were either Parthian (Ch: Anxi) like An Shigao (c. 148 CE)
   or An Hsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity like Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), Zhi
   Qian and Zhi Yao, or Sogdians (Ch: SuTe/粟特) like Kang Sengkai.
   Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the
   majority of them have been identified as Central Asians.

   Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained
   strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescoes
   from the Tarim Basin.

   These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the vigorous Chinese
   culture, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point.

China

   Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century CE from
   Central Asia (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting
   China during Asoka's reign), and through to the 8th century it became
   an extremely active centre of Buddhism.
   First known Chinese Buddha statue, found in a late Han dynasty burial
   in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the moustache and the
   clothing are strongly indicative of Gandharan influences ("Crossroads
   of Asia", p.208)
   Enlarge
   First known Chinese Buddha statue, found in a late Han dynasty burial
   in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the moustache and the
   clothing are strongly indicative of Gandharan influences ("Crossroads
   of Asia", p.208)

   The year 67 CE saw Buddhism's official introduction to China with the
   coming of the two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68 CE, under imperial
   patronage, they established the White Horse Temple (白馬寺), which still
   exists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. By the end of
   the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at
   Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu).

   The first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations made into
   Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokaksema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189
   CE. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are
   small statues on "money trees", dated circa 200 CE, in typical
   Gandharan style (drawing): "That the imported images accompanying the
   newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such
   early Gandhara characteristics on this "money tree" Buddha as the high
   ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically
   looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms."
   ("Crossroads of Asia" p209)
   Maitreya Buddha, Northern Wei, 443 CE.
   Enlarge
   Maitreya Buddha, Northern Wei, 443 CE.

   Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618–907).
   The dynasty was initially characterized by a strong openness to foreign
   influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the
   numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India from the 4th to the
   11th century. The Tang capital of Chang'an (today's Xi'an) became an
   important centre for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to
   Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in
   Japan.

   However foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the
   end of the Tang Dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung
   outlawed all "foreign" religions (including Christian Nestorianism,
   Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism) in order to support the indigenous
   Taoism. Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions,
   destroyed monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhist monks, ending
   Buddhism's cultural and intellectual dominance.

   Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosper for some
   centuries, the latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China, Chan
   flourished particularly under the Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its
   monasteries were great centers of culture and learning.

   Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and
   heritages in the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mogao
   Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near
   Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi
   province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings near Chongqing are among the most
   important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant
   Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during Tang Dynasty
   and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the
   largest stone Buddha statue in the world.

Korea

   Buddhism was introduced around 372 CE, when Chinese ambassadors visited
   the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, bringing scriptures and images.
   Buddhism prospered in Korea, and in particular Seon ( Zen) Buddhism
   from the 7th century onward. However, with the beginning of the
   Confucean Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in 1392, Buddhism was
   strongly discriminated against until it was almost completely
   eradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement.

Japan

   Tile with seated Buddha, Nara Prefecture, Asuka period, 7th century.
   Tokyo National Museum.
   Enlarge
   Tile with seated Buddha, Nara Prefecture, Asuka period, 7th century.
   Tokyo National Museum.

   Japan discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when Korean monks traveled
   to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The
   Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century.

   Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to
   preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing
   in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia and China.

   From 710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital
   city of Nara, such as the five-story pagoda and Golden Hall of the
   Horyuji, or the Kofuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures
   were made, often under governmental sponsorship. The creation of
   Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th
   century during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura.

   From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following
   the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from
   China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as
   sumi-e and the Enso) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to
   express the true essence of the world through impressionistic and
   unadorned "non-dualistic" representations. The search for enlightenment
   "in the moment" also led to the development of other important
   derivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of
   flower arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost
   any human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic
   content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat
   techniques ( martial arts).

   Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000
   Buddhist temples are preserved and regularly restored.

South-East Asia

   Statue of the Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia, 12th century.
   Enlarge
   Statue of the Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia, 12th century.

   During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended
   to be restricted by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthian empire,
   an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely
   wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This demand
   revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean and China, with
   India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade
   connection, commercial settlements, and even political interventions,
   India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade
   routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam,
   lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal
   settlements were established there.

   For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the
   major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the
   various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and
   the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism,
   Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and
   through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the
   Mahabharata.

   From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful
   empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and
   artistic creation. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea
   from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially
   followed the Mahayana faith. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the
   Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their art
   expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas.

Vietnam

Srivijayan empire (5th–15th century)

   Cambodian Buddha, 14th century.
   Enlarge
   Cambodian Buddha, 14th century.

   Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered at Palembang on the island of
   Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a
   line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a
   great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a
   thousand monks at his court. Atisha studied there before travelling to
   Tibet as a missionary.

   Sriviijaya spread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia.
   Numerous statues of Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by
   a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found
   throughout the region. Extremely rich architectural remains are visible
   at the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the
   world, built from around 780 CE), in Java, which has 505 images of the
   seated Buddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola
   rulers of India, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion
   from the 13th century.

Khmer Empire (9th–13th century)

   Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and
   Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula.
   Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in
   neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development,
   with a temple complex and urban organization able to support around one
   million urban dwellers. One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII
   (1181–1219), built large Mahayana Buddhist structures at Bayon and
   Angkor Thom.

   Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India during the 11th
   century, Mahayana Buddhism declined in Southeast Asia, to be replaced
   by the introduction of Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka.

Emergence of the Vajrayana (5th century)

   Vajrayāna Buddhism, also called Tantric Buddhism, first emerged in
   eastern India between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. It is sometimes
   considered a sub-school of Mahayana and sometimes a third major
   "vehicle" (Yana) of Buddhism in its own right. The Vajrayana is an
   extension of Mahayana Buddhism in that it does not offer new
   philosophical perspectives, but rather introduces additional techniques
   (upaya, or 'skilful means'), including the use of visualizations and
   other yogic practices. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are
   also derived from Hinduism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning
   of sacrificial offerings). This school of thought was founded by the
   Brahmin Padmasambhava.

   Early Vajrayana practitioners were forest-dwelling mahasiddas who lived
   on the margins of society, but by the 9th century Vajrayana had won
   acceptance at major Mahayana monastic universities such as Nalanda and
   Vikramshila. Along with much of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the
   Vajrayana was eclipsed in the wake of the late 12th century Muslim
   invasions. It has persisted in Tibet, where it was wholly transplanted
   from the 7th to 12th centuries and became the dominant form of Buddhism
   to the present day, and on a limited basis in Japan as well where it
   evolved into Shingon Buddhism.

Theravada Renaissance (11th century CE— )

   Expansion of Theravada Buddhism from the 11th century CE.
   Enlarge
   Expansion of Theravada Buddhism from the 11th century CE.

   From the 11th century, the destruction of Buddhism in the Indian
   mainland by Islamic invasions led to the decline of the Mahayana faith
   in South-East Asia. Continental routes through the Indian subcontinent
   being compromised, direct sea routes between the Middle-East through
   Sri Lanka and to China developed, leading to the adoption of the
   Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon, introduced to the region around
   the 11th century CE from Sri Lanka.

   King Anawrahta (1044–1077); the historical founder of the Burmese
   empire, unified the country and adopted the Theravada Buddhist faith.
   This initiated the creation of thousands of Buddhist temples at Pagan,
   the capital, between the 11th and 13th century. Around 2,000 of them
   are still standing. The power of the Burmese waned with the rise of the
   Thai, and with the seizure of the capital Pagan by the Mongols in 1287,
   but Theravada Buddhism remained the main Burmese faith to this day.

   The Theravada faith was also adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai
   kingdom of Sukhothai around 1260. Theravada Buddhism was further
   reinforced during the Ayutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming an
   integral part of the Thai society.

   In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into
   Laos and Cambodia in the 13th century. However, from the 14th century,
   on the coastal fringes and in the islands of South-East Asia, the
   influence of Islam proved stronger, expanding into Malaysia, Indonesia,
   and most of the islands as far as the southern Philippines.

   However, since 1966 with Soeharto's rise of power in the aftermath of
   the bloody events after the so called "September 30th, 1965 murders",
   allegedly executed by the Communists Party, there has been a remarkable
   renaissance of Buddhism in Indonesia. This is partly due to the
   Soeharto's New Order's requirements for the people of Indonesia to
   adopt one of the five official religions: Islam, Protestantism,
   Catholicism, Hinduism or Buddhism. Today it is estimated there are some
   10 millions Buddhists in Indonesia. A large part of them are people of
   Chinese ancestry.

Expansion of Buddhism to the West

   Saint Josaphat preaching Christianity. 12th century Greek manuscript.
   Enlarge
   Saint Josaphat preaching Christianity. 12th century Greek manuscript.

   After the Classical encounters between Buddhism and the West recorded
   in Greco-Buddhist art, information and legends about Buddhism seem to
   have reached the West sporadically. During the 8th century, Buddhist
   Jataka stories were translated into Syriac and Arabic as Kalilag and
   Damnag. An account of Buddha's life was translated in to Greek by John
   of Damascus, and widely circulated to Christians as the story of
   Barlaam and Josaphat. By the 1300s this story of Josaphat had become so
   popular that he was made a Catholic saint.

   The next direct encounter between Europeans and Buddhism happened in
   Medieval times when the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck was sent on
   an embassy to the Mongol court of Mongke by the French king Saint Louis
   in 1253. The contact happened in Cailac (today's Qayaliq in
   Kazakhstan), and William originally thought they were wayward
   Christians (Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road").

   Major interest for Buddhism emerged during colonial times, when Western
   powers were in a position to witness the faith and its artistic
   manifestations in detail. European philosophy was strongly influenced
   by the study of oriental religions during that period.

   The opening of Japan in 1853 also created a considerable interest for
   the arts and culture of Japan, and provided access to one of the most
   thriving Buddhist cultures in the world.

   Buddhism started to enjoy a strong interest from the general population
   in the West during the 20th century, following the perceived failure of
   social utopias, from Fascism to Marxism. After the Second World War,
   the focus of progress tended to shift to personal self-realization, on
   the material as well as spiritual plane.

   In this context, Buddhism has been displaying a strong power of
   attraction, due to its tolerance, its lack of deist authority and
   determinism, and its focus on understanding reality through self
   inquiry. According to the latest census it is now the fastest growing
   religion in Britain.

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