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Hernán Cortés

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Historical figures

                            Hernán(do) Cortés
               Hernán Cortés in a contemporary rendition
         Born 1485
              Medellín, Extremadura, Spain
      Died    December 2, 1547
              Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville Spain
   Occupation Mayor of Baracoa Cuba, Conquistador, Marqués del Valle de
              Oaxaca

   Hernán(do) Cortés, Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485– December 2,
   1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military
   expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. Cortés was
   part of the generation of European colonizers that began the first
   phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

   Cortés was known as Hernando or Fernando Cortés during his lifetime and
   signed all his letters Fernán Cortés.

   Born in Medellin, Extremadura, in Castile, to a family of lesser
   nobility, Cortés as a young man chose to win a livelihood in the New
   World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an
   encomienda and for a period became mayor of a small town. In 1519 he
   was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an
   expedition which he partly funded. His enmity with the governor of Cuba
   Diego Velázquez resulted in the latter calling back the expedition in
   the last moment, an order which was ignored by Cortés in an act of
   disobedience. Arriving on the continent Cortés executed a successful
   strategy of allying with some indigenous peoples against others. He
   also successfully used a native woman, Doña Marina, as interpreter and
   later she became mother of a son to Cortés. When the Governor of Cuba
   sent emissaries to arrest Cortés he fought them and won and used the
   extra troops as reinforcements. Instead he wrote letters directly to
   the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of
   punished for mutiny. When the Aztec empire was overthrown Cortés was
   awarded the title of Marques del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more
   prestigious titles of Viceroy was given to relatives of the king.
   Cortés returned to Spain where he died peacefully but embittered.

   Due to the controversial undertakings of Cortés and the scarcity of
   reliable sources of information about him it has become difficult to
   assert anything definitive about his personality and motivations. Early
   heroification of the conquistadors did not encourage deep examination
   of Cortés. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors' character in the
   context of modern anti-colonial sentiment and greatly expanded concern
   for human rights, as typified by the Black Legend, also did little to
   expand our understanding of Cortés as an individual. As a result of
   these historical trends, descriptions of Cortés tend to be simplistic,
   and either black or rosy coloured.

Early life

   Cortés was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the
   Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485. His father, Martín Cortés de
   Monroy, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender
   means. His mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother,
   Hernan was second cousin to Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the
   Inca empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with another
   Francisco Pizarro who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs).

   Hernan Cortés is described as a sickly child by his biographer,
   chaplain, and friend Francisco López de Gómara. At the age of fourteen,
   Cortés was sent to study at the University of Salamanca. This was the
   great centre of learning of the country and while accounts vary as to
   the nature of Cortés' studies, his later writings and actions suggest
   he studied Law and probably Latin.

   After two years, Cortés, tired of schooling, returned home to Medellín,
   much to the annoyance of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped
   for a profitable legal career. However, those two years at Salamanca,
   plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in
   Seville and later in Hispaniola, would give him a close acquaintance
   with the legal codes of Castile that was to stand him in good stead in
   justifying his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.

   At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as restless,
   haughty, and mischievous. This was probably a fair description of a
   sixteen-year-old boy who had returned home only to find himself
   frustrated by life in his small provincial town.

   By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Columbus in the New
   World was streaming back to Spain. Cortés and his family must have been
   well aware of the potential it might hold for a young adventurous man.
   Spanish colonization of the Americas
   History of the conquest

   Inter caetera
   Alaska
   California
   Guatemala
   Mexico
   Peru
   Yucatán
   Conquistadors

   Vasco Núñez de Balboa
   Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
   Hernán Cortés
   Juan Ponce de León
   Francisco de Montejo
   Francisco Pizarro
   Diego de Almagro
   Hernando de Soto
   Sebastián de Belalcázar
   Pedro de Valdivia

Preparing to depart for the New World

   Plans were made in 1502 for Cortes to sail to the Americas with a
   family acquaintance, Nicolas de Ovando, the newly appointed governor of
   Hispaniola, but an injury sustained while hurriedly escaping from the
   bedroom of a married woman of Medellín prevented him from making the
   journey. Instead, he spent the next year wandering the country,
   probably spending most of his time in the heady atmosphere of Spain's
   southern ports, listening to the tales of those returning from the
   Indies, who told of discovery and conquest, gold, Indians and strange
   unknown lands.

Arrival in the New World

   Cortés did not arrive in the New World until 1503. He finally succeeded
   in reaching Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who
   tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in
   order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may
   have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career. The history
   of the conquistadors is rife with accounts of rivalry, jockeying for
   position, mutiny, and betrayal.

   In 1503 at the age of eighteen, Cortés sailed in a convoy of merchant
   ships bound for Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola. Upon his
   arrival, he registered as a citizen, which entitled him to a building
   plot and land for cultivation. Soon afterwards, Ovando, still the
   governor, gave him a repartimiento of Indians and made him a notary of
   the town of Azuza. His next five years seem to have served to establish
   him in the colony, though he managed to contract syphilis from Indian
   women in the area, a disease which until that time had been unknown in
   the Old World but which wrought great havoc after its introduction
   there. In 1506 he took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba and
   got a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his effort.

Cortés in Cuba

   In 1511, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the
   governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. At the age
   of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsiblity of
   insuring that the Crown received the quinto, or customary one-fifth of
   the profits from the expedition.

   The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, was so impressed with Cortés
   that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. Cortés
   continued to build a reputation as a daring and bold leader. He became
   secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortes was appointed mayor ( alcalde)
   of Santiago. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with a
   repartimiento of Indians, mines and cattle. In 1514, Cortés led a group
   that wanted more natives for the settlers.

   As time went on, relations between Cortés and governor Velázquez
   became, to put it mildly, strained. The governor twice jailed the young
   cavalier although each time Cortés managed to escape.

   Cortés also found time to become romantically involved with Catalina
   Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of
   Velázquez' displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés
   was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily
   distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina
   reluctantly under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing
   so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of
   Velázquez.

Looking Beyond Cuba

   It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies, that Cortés
   began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of
   Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony.

The invasion of Mexico

   The Aztec world
   Aztec society

   Nahuatl language
   Aztec philosophy
   Aztec calendar
   Aztec religion
   Aztec mythology
   Aztec entheogenic complex
   Human sacrifice in Aztec culture
   Aztec history

   Aztlán
   Aztec army
   Aztec codices
   Aztec Triple Alliance
   Spanish conquest of Mexico
   Siege of Tenochtitlan
   La Noche Triste
   Hernán Cortés
   Hueyi Tlatoani

   Tenoch ( 1325– 1376)
   Acamapichtli ( 1376– 1395)
   Huitzilíhuitl ( 1395– 1417)
   Chimalpopoca ( 1417– 1427)
   Itzcóatl ( 1427– 1440)
   Moctezuma I ( 1440– 1469)
   Axayacatl ( 1469– 1481)
   Tízoc ( 1481– 1486)
   Auítzotl ( 1486– 1502)
   Moctezuma II ( 1502– 1520)
   Cuitláhuac ( 1520)
   Cuauhtémoc ( 1520– 1521)

   The most notable achievement of Cortés career was the invasion of
   Mexico and conquest of the Aztec empire. In 1518 Velázquez put him in
   charge of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico
   for colonization. At the last minute, Velázquez changed his mind and
   tried to revoke his order to prevent the brash Cortés from stealing all
   the glory that might come from the expedition.

   The decisive battle in this campaign was the siege of Tenochtitlan.
   Cortés' victory over the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan enabled the eventual
   Spanish conquest of Mexico.

   Cortés married one of the daughters of Emperor Montezuma II and gave
   the other noble women to his men.

   In an incident that would become a mark of infamy, Cortés literally put
   Cuauhtémoc's feet to the fire to force him to reveal where the
   remaining Aztec gold was hidden. This cruelty was futile, however,
   because the greater part of the Mexican treasures had already passed
   into the hands of the Spaniards. Some of this treasure was lost during
   the panicked escape from Tenochtitlan during La Noche Triste.

Appointment to governorship of Mexico

   Because of his conquests and all the gold and jewels he had collected,
   Cortés was very popular back home in Spain. King Charles I of Spain,
   who had become Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519, appointed Cortés
   governor and captain general of the newly conquered territory. Cortés
   received the title Marques del Valle de Oaxaca (Marquis of the Oaxaca
   Valley) in 1528.

   Cortés served a term as Governor-General of " New Spain of the Ocean
   Sea" (as Juan de Grijalva had named Mexico before Cortés ever saw it),
   bringing stability and surprising civil rights to the country.

Cortés initiates the construction of Mexico City

   Cortés began the construction of Mexico City on the Aztec ruins and
   brought many Spaniards over to live there. It soon became the most
   important European city in North America. He managed the founding of
   new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of Mexico or
   New Spain. Cortés also supported efforts to convert the indigenous
   people to Christianity and sponsored new explorations.

Cortés the farmer

   Cortés spent the next seven years establishing peace among the Indians
   of Mexico and developing mines and farmlands.

   Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in
   Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial
   Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200
   slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent.

Cortés's wife dies under suspicious circumstances

   His wife Catalina eventually joined him in Mexico City but it was not a
   happy reunion. After all, his infidelities with both native and
   European women were well-known to her. One night in his palace she
   complained about her Indian servants but Cortés cut her off with the
   shout, "Your Indians? They are not under any circumstance your Indians
   but mine." Shortly afterward she was found dead, having "fallen" from
   her bedroom window. She might have been murdered or committed suicide.

Death of Cuauhtémoc

   The execution of Cuauhtémoc on the journey to Honduras was another
   instance of the misconception by Cortés of aboriginal conditions. It is
   not at all unlikely that the Mexican chieftain was party to a plan to
   exterminate the Spaniards while they were floundering through the
   forests and swamps. Cortés had Cuauhtémoc hanged over the strong
   objections of his men. Another account by Bernal Diaz del Castillo
   tells us that other Spaniards supported him on his decision to execute
   Cuauhtémoc. The execution eventually had to be carried out by
   Tlaxcallan soldiers.

   Sworn testimony at Cortés' many subsequent trials (for murdering his
   legal wife, etc.) has abundant testimony from friends and enemies alike
   that this crime ruined Cortés. He never forgave himself and seems to
   have gone somewhat mad. In the end he was said to have remarked, "I
   didn't want it this way."

Deteriorating relations with the Spanish government

   Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was
   unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and that he received nothing but
   ingratitude for his role in establishing New Spain. This picture is the
   one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written
   by Gomara. However, there may be more to the picture than this.
   According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Cortés' own greed and vanity
   may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the King

          "Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he
          speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and
          his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he
          disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more
          imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated 15 October
          1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México",
          Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a
          rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him
          alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which
          could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression."

   In 1522 The Crown appointed Cortés governor of New Spain, but also,
   much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at
   the same time to assist him in his governing — in effect submitting him
   to close observation and administration. In 1523, the Crown (possibly
   influenced by Cortés' enemy, Bishop Fonseca), sent a military force
   under the command of Juan de Garay to conquer and settle the northern
   part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco. This was another setback for
   Cortés who mentions this in his fourth letter to the King in which he
   describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies
   Diego Velázquez, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Juan
   Garay. The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to
   the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the
   politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight.

Cortés suspected of conspiring to secede from Spain

   In 1524, the treachery in Honduras of Cristobal de Olid, an old
   supporter of Diego Velázquez, sent Cortés into a rage and he issued a
   decree to arrest Velázquez, the Governor of Cuba, whom Cortés was sure
   was behind Olid's treason. This excessive action, however, served to
   further estrange the Spanish government which was already beginning to
   feel anxious about Cortés rising power. In response, the government
   sent a special Juez de residencia, Luis Ponce de León, to conduct a
   full inquiry into Cortés activities. A few days after Cortés returned
   from the expedition to Honduras, where Cortés defeated de Olid, Ponce
   de Leon suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain.
   Cortés went to Spain in 1528 where he was awarded the title "Marques
   del Valle de Oaxaca" and was confirmed in his land holdings and
   vassals, but he was not reinstated as governor and was never again
   given any important office in the administration of New Spain.

Cortés accused of murdering his first wife

   At a time when there was a strong suspicion in court circles of an
   intended rebellion by Cortés, a charge was brought against him that
   cast a fatal blight upon his character and plans. He was accused of
   murdering his first wife. The proceedings of the investigation were
   kept secret. No report, either exonerating or condemning Cortés, was
   published. Had the Government declared him innocent, it would have
   greatly increased his popularity; had it declared him a criminal, a
   crisis would have been precipitated by the accused and his party.
   Silence was the only safe policy, but that silence is suggestive that
   grave danger was feared from his influence.
   Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th century
   artist Jakob Seisenegger.
   Enlarge
   Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th century
   artist Jakob Seisenegger.

Cortés appeals to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor

   Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend
   against (his) own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego
   Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop
   Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to
   undermine him at court.

   Cortés's fifth letter to Charles V attempts to justify his conduct and
   concludes with a bitter attack on “various and powerful rivals and
   enemies” who have “obscured the eyes of your Majesty.” Unfortunately,
   he was not dealing simply with a king of Spain, but with an emperor who
   ruled most of Europe and who had little time for distant colonies,
   except insofar as they contributed to his treasury.

   In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles V was attending to matters in
   his German domains and Spain was ruled by Bishop (later Pope) Adrian of
   Utrecht, who functioned as regent. Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the
   regent to appoint a commissioner with powers to investigate Cortés's
   conduct and even arrest him.

   The Spanish bureaucrats sent out a commission of inquiry under
   Licentiate Luis Ponce de León. Ponce de León arrived to conduct a
   residencia of Cortes but fell ill and died shortly after his arrival.
   Before he died, he appointed Marcos de Aguilar as alcalde mayor. The
   aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor.

   Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the
   government. Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south; but de
   Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end
   when the ship carrying these treasures sunk.

   In August 1527 a royal decree arrived confirming Estrada as governor.
   Albornoz persuaded him to release Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortes
   complained angrily after one of his adherent's hand was cut off,
   Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortes sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal
   to Emperor Charles V.

First return to Spain

   In 1528, Cortes returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his
   master, Charles V. He presented himself with great splendor before the
   court. By this time Charles V had returned and Cortés forthrightly
   responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due
   the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto
   (one-fifth) required. Had he spent lavishly to rebuíld Tenochtitlán,
   damaged during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire? Of course
   he had, and the rebuilt Tenochtitlán was now more magnificent than any
   city in Europe, a true jewel in the Spanish crown.

   He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with
   the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still
   young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded by being named the Marqués
   del Valle de Oaxaca, a noble title and senorial estate which was passed
   down to his descendents until 1811.

Mismanagement of Cortés's property during his absence

   Cortés's property was mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators
   while he was in Spain. Cortés sided with local Indians in a lawsuit.
   The Indians documented the abuses in the Huexotzinco Codex.

Return to Mexico

   Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honours, but with
   diminished power, a viceroy having been entrusted with the
   administration of civil affairs, although Cortés still retained
   military authority, with permission to continue his conquests. This
   division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure
   of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged.

   On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy.
   Furthermore, there were so many accusations made against him—even that
   he had murdered his first wife, Catalina, who had died that year—that,
   after reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order,
   he retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south
   of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and
   on Pacific exploration.

   Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with the
   greedy, brutal Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán and disputed the right to explore
   the territory that is today California with Antonio de Mendoza, the
   first viceroy.

Exploration of Baja California

   In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered
   the Baja California peninsula. Cortés also spent time exploring the
   Pacific coast of Mexico. The gulf that separates the Baja California
   peninsula from Mexico is named the Sea of Cortes. This was the last
   major expedition by Cortés.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

   After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in
   1541, hoping to confound his enemies. On his return he was utterly
   neglected, and could scarcely obtain an audience.

   On one occasion he forced his way through a crowd that surrounded the
   emperor's carriage, and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded
   at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied
   Cortés proudly, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors
   left you cities."

Expedition against Algiers

   The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join himself and his fleet
   commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition against Algiers in
   1541, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire and was used as a base
   by the notorious Turkish corsair Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha who was
   also the Admiral-in-Chief of the Ottoman Fleet. During this unfortunate
   campaign, which was his last, he served with great bravery. Cortés was
   almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing
   Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who managed to defeat Andrea Doria and the
   fleet of Charles V for a second time after the Battle of Preveza.

   It may be that had the advice of Cortés been followed that undertaking
   would have had a less disastrous end; but he was not even consulted.
   Had his advice been heeded, the Spanish arms might have been saved from
   disgrace, and Europe delivered nearly three centuries earlier from the
   scourge of the Barbary pirates.

Final Days and Death

   Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he
   was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal
   treasury, but was given a royal runaround for the next three years.
   Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached
   Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la
   Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy
   at age 62.

   Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man. He left his many
   mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every
   one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains
   eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove
   the "natural" status of three of his children (legitimizing them in the
   eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina
   (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favorite.

Assessment of Cortés

   It is extremely difficult to characterize this particular conquistador
   – his unspeakable atrocities, his tactical and strategic awareness, the
   rewards for his Tlaxcalteca allies along with the rehabilitation of the
   nobility (including a castle for Moctezuma's heirs in Spain that still
   stands), his respect for Indians as worthy adversaries and family
   members.

Cortés's place in Mexican history

   In Mexico today, Cortés is condemned as a modern-day damnatio memoriae.
   In all of Mexico only the castle in the centre of Cuernavaca city bears
   his name. Muralists depict him as a deformed monster with the face of
   Evil Incarnate. . While originally the gulf of California was named "El
   mar de Cortez" by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539, the
   official name after the independence became "El o de California".

   His body has been moved more than eight times. Since his body arrived
   in Mexico in 1567, it has been moved several times to avoid
   destruction. Today, (and unknown to most Mexicans) it is in the "Templo
   de Jesús" in Mexico City with the only statue of Cortez in Mexican
   territory, a statue by Manuel Tolsa. In 1981 the statue and the body
   were in danger of destruction by a nationalistic group, after the
   statue was made public by President Lopez Portillo, so access has to be
   restricted.

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