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God

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Divinities

          This article discusses the term "God" in the context of
          monotheism and henotheism. See God (word) for the etymology and
          capitalization of the term. See deity, god (male deity) or
          goddess for details on polytheistic usages. See Names of God for
          terms used in other languages or specific belief systems. See
          God (disambiguation) for other uses.

   A classic conception of the Christian God: Detail of Sistine Chapel
   fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by 16th Century painter
   Michelangelo.
   Enlarge
   A classic conception of the Christian God: Detail of Sistine Chapel
   fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by 16th Century painter
   Michelangelo.

   God is the deity believed by monotheists to be the supreme reality.
   Often characterized as a male figure, he is believed variously to be
   the sole omnipotent creator, or at least the sustainer, of the
   universe.

Etymology and usage

   The earliest written form of the Germanic word "god" comes from the 6th
   century Christian Codex Argenteus, which descends from the Old English
   guþ from the Proto-Germanic *Ȝuđan. While hotly disputed, most agree on
   the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form *ǵhu-tó-m, based on the root
   *ǵhau-, *ǵhau̯ǝ-, which meant "to call" or "to invoke". Alternatively,
   "Ghau" may be derived from a posthumously deified chieftain named "
   Gaut" — a name which sometimes appears for the Norse god Odin or one of
   his descendants. The Lombardic form of Odin, Godan, may derive from
   cognate Proto-Germanic *Ȝuđánaz.

   The capitalized form "God" was first used in Ulfilas' Gothic
   translation of the New Testament, to represent the Greek Theos
   (uncertain origin), and the Latin Deus (etymology "* Dyeus"). Because
   the development of English orthography was dominated by Christian
   texts, the capitalization (hence personalization and personal name)
   continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and the
   "gods" of pagan polytheism.

   The name "God" now typically refers to the Abrahamic God of Judaism (
   El (god) YHVH), Christianity (God), and Islam (Allah). Though there are
   significant cultural divergences that are implied by these different
   names, "God" remains the common English translation for all. The name
   may signify any related or similar monotheistic deities, such as the
   early monotheism of Akhenaten and Zoroastrianism.

   In the context of comparative religion, "God" is also often related to
   concepts of universal deity in Dharmic religions, in spite of the
   historical distinctions which separate monotheism from polytheism — a
   distinction which some, such as Max Müller and Joseph Campbell, have
   characterised as a bias within Western culture and theology.

   see also: Names of God

Names of God

   God is often viewed as like a force of nature — or rather as a
   consciousness which can be manifest as a natural aspect. Both
   illuminating light (pictured) and mysterious darkness are canonical
   symbols for representing God.
   Enlarge
   God is often viewed as like a force of nature — or rather as a
   consciousness which can be manifest as a natural aspect. Both
   illuminating light (pictured) and mysterious darkness are canonical
   symbols for representing God.

   The noun God is the proper English name used for the deity of
   monotheistic faiths. Various English third-person pronouns are used for
   God, and the correctness of each is disputed. (See God and gender.)

   Different names for God exist within different religious traditions:
     * Allah is the Arabic name of God, which is used by Arab Muslims and
       also by most non-Muslim Arabs. ilah, cognate to northwest Semitic
       El (Hebrew "El" or more specifically "Eloha", Aramaic "Eloi"), is
       the generic word for a god (any deity), Allah contains the article,
       literally "The God". Also, when speaking in English, Muslims often
       translate "Allah" as "God". One Islamic tradition states that Allah
       has 99 names while others say that all good names belong to Allah.
       Similarly, in the Aramaic of Jesus, the word Alaha is used for the
       name of God.
     * Yahweh, Jehovah (Hebrew: 'Yud-Hay-Vav-Hay', יה-וה ) are some of the
       names used for God in various translations of the Bible (all
       translating the same four letters - YHVH). El, and the
       plural/majestic form Elohim, is another term used frequently,
       though El can also simply mean god in reference to deities of other
       religions. Others include El Shaddai, Adonai, Emmanuel. When Moses
       asked "What is your name?" he was given the answer Ehyeh Asher
       Ehyeh, which literally means, "I am that I am," as a parallel to
       the Tetragrammaton Yud-Hay-Vav-Hay. See The name of God in Judaism
       for Jewish names of God. Most Orthodox Jews, and many Jews of other
       denominations, believe it wrong to write the word "God" on any
       substance which can be destroyed. Therefore, they will write "G-d"
       as what they consider a more respectful symbolic representation.
       Others consider this unnecessary because English is not the "Holy
       Language" (i.e. Hebrew), but still will not speak the Hebrew
       representation written in the Torah, "Yud-Hay-Vav-Hay", aloud, and
       will instead use other names such as "Adonai" ("my Lord", used in
       prayer, blessings and other religious rituals) or the euphemism
       "Hashem" (literally "The Name", used at all other times). Another
       name especially used by ultra-Orthodox Jews is "HaKadosh Baruch
       Hu", meaning "The Holy One, Blessed is He".

   YHWH, the name of God or Tetragrammaton, in Phoenician (1100 BC to AD
   300), Aramaic (10th Century BC to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts.
   YHWH, the name of God or Tetragrammaton, in Phoenician (1100 BC to AD
   300), Aramaic (10th Century BC to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts.

                In early English Bibles, the Tetragrammaton was rendered
                in capitals: "IEHOUAH" in William Tyndale's version of
                1525. The King James Version of 1611 renders YHWH as "The
                Lord", also as "Jehovah", see Psalms 83:18; Exodus 6:3.
                Research in comparative mythology shows a linguistic
                correlation between Levantine Yaw and monotheistic Yahweh,
                suggesting that the god may in some manner be the
                predecessor in the sense of an evolving religion of
                Yahweh.

     * Elohim as "God" (with the plural suffix -im, but used with singular
       agreement); sometimes used to mean "gods" or apparently mortal
       judges.
     * The Holy Trinity (one God in three Persons, the God the Father, the
       God the Son (Jesus Christ), and God the Holy Ghost/ Holy Spirit)
       denotes God in almost all Christianity. Arab Christians will often
       also use "Allah" (the noun for "God" in Arabic) to refer to God.

     * Deus, cognate of the Greek θέος (theos, '(male) deity') is the
       Latin word for God, and will be used in Latin portions of Roman
       Catholic masses. It is also used to denote God by some Deists,
       Pandeists, Pantheists, and followers of similars non-Theistic
       beliefs.

     * God is called Igzi'abihier (lit. "Lord of the Universe") or Amlak
       (lit. the plural of mlk, "king" or "lord") in the Ethiopian
       Orthodox Church.
     * Jah is the name of God in the Rastafari movement
     * The Maasai name for "God" is Ngai, (also spelled:'Ngai, En-kai,
       Enkai, Engai, Eng-ai) which occurs in the volcano name Ol Doinyo
       Lengai ("the mountain of God").
     * The Mi'kmaq name for "God" is Niskam.
     * Some churches ( United Church of Canada, Religious Science) are
       using "the One" alongside "God" as a more gender-neutral way of
       referring to God (See also Oneness).
     * Bhagavan - "The Oppulent One", Brahman -"The Great", Paramatma -
       "The Supersoul" and Ishvara- "The Controller", are the terms used
       for God in the Vedas. A number of Hindu traditions worship a
       personal form of God or Ishvara, such as Vishnu or Shiva, whereas
       others worship a non-personal Supreme Cosmic Spirit, known as
       Brahman. The Vaishnava schools consider Vishnu or Krishna as the
       Supreme Personality of Godhead and within this tradition is the
       Vishnu sahasranama, which is a hymn describing the one thousand
       names of God (Vishnu). Shaivites consider Shiva as the Supreme God
       in similar way to the followers of Vaishnavism. The Supreme Ishvara
       of Hinduism must not be confused with the numerous deities or
       demigods which are collectively known as devas.
     * Baquan is a phonetical pronunciation for God in several Pacific
       Islander religions.
     * Buddhism is non-theistic (see God in Buddhism): instead of
       extolling an anthropomorphic creator God, Gautama Buddha employed
       negative theology to avoid speculation and keep the undefined as
       ineffable . Buddha believed the more important issue was to bring
       beings out of suffering to liberation. Enlightened ones are called
       Arhats or Buddha (e.g, the Buddha Sakyamuni), and are venerated. A
       bodhisattva is an altruistic being who has vowed to attain
       Buddhahood in order to help others to become Awakened ("Buddha")
       too. Buddhism also teaches of the existence of the devas or
       heavenly beings who temporarily dwell in celestial states of great
       happiness but are not yet free from the cycle of reincarnations (
       samsara). Some Mahayana and Tantra Buddhist scriptures do express
       ideas which are extremely close to pantheism, with a cosmic Buddha
       ( Adibuddha) being viewed as the sustaining Ground of all being -
       although this is very much a minority vision within Buddhism.
     * Jains invoke the five paramethis: Siddha, Arahant, Acharya,
       Upadhyaya, Sadhu. The arhantas include the 24 Tirthankaras from
       Lord Rishabha to Mahavira. But Jain philosophy as such does not
       recognize any Supreme Omnipotent creator God.
     * Sikhs worship God with these common names Waheguru Wondrous God,
       Satnaam (True is Your Name), Akal (the Eternal) or Onkar (some
       similarity to the Hindu Aum). They believe that when reciting these
       names, devotion, dedication and a genuine appreciation and
       acceptance of the Almighty and the blessings thereof (as opposed to
       mechanical recitation) is essential if one is to gain anything by
       the meditation. The assistance of the guru is also believed to be
       essential to reach God.
     * In Surat Shabda Yoga, names used for God include Anami Purush
       (nameless power) and Radha Swami (lord of the soul, symbolized as
       Radha).
     * The Bahá'í Faith refers to God using the local word for God in
       whatever language is being spoken. In the Bahá'í Writings in
       Arabic, Allah is used. Bahá'ís share some naming traditions with
       Islam, but see "Bahá" (Glory or Splendour) as The Greatest Name of
       God. God's names are seen as attributes, and God is often, in
       prayers, referred to by these titles and attributes.
     * The Shona people of Zimbabwe refer to God primarily as Mwari. They
       also use names such as Nyadenga in reference to his presumed
       residence in the 'heveans', or Musikavanhu, literally "the
       Creator".
     * Zoroastrians worship Ahura Mazda.
     * To many Native American religions, God is called "The Great
       Spirit", "The Master of Life", "The Master of Breath", or
       "Grandfather". For example, in the Algonquian first nations
       culture, Gitche Manitou or "Great Spirit" was the name adopted by
       French missionaries for the Christian God. Other similar names may
       also be used.
     * Followers of Eckankar refer to God as SUGMAD or HU; the latter name
       is pronounced as a spiritual practice.
     * In Chinese, the name Shang Ti 上帝 ( Hanyu Pinyin: shàng dì)
       (literally King Above), is the name given for God in the Standard
       Mandarin Union Version of the Bible. Shen 神 (lit. spirit, or deity)
       was also adopted by Protestant missionaries in China to refer to
       the Christian God.

Theological approaches

   Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes to
   God, including omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect
   goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. He
   has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all
   moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. These
   attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish,
   Christian and Muslim scholars, including St Augustine, Al-Ghazali, and
   Maimonides. Sigmund Freud regarded this view of God as wish fulfillment
   for the perfect father figure. Marxist writers see the idea of God as
   rooted in the powerlessness experienced by men and women in oppressive
   societies. These however are arguments from motive. Several people in
   powerful positions have and do hold to the idea of God's existence too.

   Many medieval philosophers developed arguments for the existence of
   God, while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God's
   attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important
   philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience
   implies that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does
   know this, their apparent free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge
   does not imply predestination; and if God does not know it, God is not
   omniscient.

   The last few hundred years of philosophy have seen sustained attacks on
   the ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments for God's
   existence. Against these, theists (or fideists) argue that faith is not
   a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk, they
   say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of
   logic, a position famously summed up by Pascal as: "The heart has
   reasons which reason knows not of."

   Theologians attempt to explicate (and in some cases systematize)
   beliefs; some express their own experience of the divine. Theologians
   ask questions such as, "What is the nature of God?" "What does it mean
   for God to be singular?" "If people believe in God as a duality or
   trinity, what do these terms signify?" "Is God transcendent, immanent,
   or some mix of the two?" "What is the relationship between God and the
   universe, and God and humankind?"

   It is also important to note that most major religions hold God not as
   a metaphor, but a being that influences our day-to-day existences. This
   is to say that people who have rejected the teachings of such religions
   typically view God as a metaphor or stand-in for the common aspirations
   and beliefs all humans share, rather than a sentient part of life;
   whereas organized religion tends to believe the opposite.

   Many believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful
   spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints, djinni,
   demons, and devas.
     * Relation of God to the Universe — Catholic Encyclopedia article

Theism and Deism

   Theism holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and
   independently of human thought; that God created and sustains
   everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal, and is personal,
   interested and answers prayer. It holds that God is both transcendent
   and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way
   present in the affairs of the world. Catholic theology holds that God
   is infinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most
   theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent,
   although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for
   evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a
   self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or
   benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature
   of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the
   future. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in
   a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.

   Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not
   intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it. In this
   view, God is not anthropomorphic, and does not literally answer prayers
   or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no
   interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism
   and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or
   Panentheistic beliefs discussed below.

History of monotheism

   16th century Christian view of Genesis: God creates Adam. The concept
   of God as a singular patriarchal "Father [of all creation]" is common
   in Western culture (Abrahamic) monotheism. (Michelangelo, Sistine
   Chapel)
   Enlarge
   16th century Christian view of Genesis: God creates Adam. The concept
   of God as a singular patriarchal " Father [of all creation]" is common
   in Western culture ( Abrahamic) monotheism. (Michelangelo, Sistine
   Chapel)

   Many historians of religion hold that monotheism may be of relatively
   recent historical origins — although comparison is difficult as many
   religions claim to be ancient. Native religions of China and India have
   concepts of panentheistic views of God that are difficult to classify
   along Western notions of monotheism vs. polytheism.

   In the Ancient Orient, many cities had their own local god, although
   this henotheistic worship of a single god did not imply denial of the
   existence of other gods. The Hebrew Ark of the Covenant is supposed (by
   some scholars) to have adapted this practice to a nomadic lifestyle,
   paving their way for a singular God. Yet, many scholars now believe
   that it may have been the Zoroastrian religion of the Persian Empire
   that was the first monotheistic religion, and the Jews were influenced
   by such notions (this controversy is still being debated) .

   The innovative cult of the Egyptian solar god Aten was promoted by the
   pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenophis IV), who ruled between 1358 and 1340 BC.
   The Aten cult is often cited as the earliest known example of
   monotheism, and is sometimes claimed to have been a formative influence
   on early Judaism, due to the presence of Hebrew slaves in Egypt. But
   even though Akhenaten's hymn to Aten offers strong evidence that
   Akhenaten considered Aten to be the sole, omnipotent creator,
   Akhenaten's program to enforce this monotheistic world-view ended with
   his death; the worship of other gods beside Aten never ceased outside
   his court, and the older polytheistic religions soon regained
   precedence.

   Other early examples of monotheism include two late rigvedic hymns
   (10.129,130) to a Panentheistic creator god, Shri Rudram, a Vedic hymn
   to Rudra, an earlier aspect of Shiva often referred to by the ancient
   Brahmans as Stiva, a masculine fertility god, which expressed monistic
   theism, and is still chanted today; the Zoroastrian Ahuramazda and
   Chinese Shang Ti. The worship of polytheistic gods, on the other hand,
   is seen by many to predate monotheism, reaching back as far as the
   Paleolithic. Today, monotheistic religions are dominant in the many
   parts of the world, though other systems of belief continue to be
   prevalent.

Monotheism and Pantheism

   Monotheism holds that there is only one God, and/or that the one true
   God is worshipped in different religions under different names. The
   view that all religions are actually worshipping the same God, whether
   they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism. It is
   important to note, however, that monotheists of one religion can, and
   often do, consider the monotheistic god of a different religion to be a
   false god. For instance, many Christian fundamentalists consider the
   God of Islam (Allah) to be a false god or demon. However, theologians
   and linguists argue that "Allah" is merely the Arabic word for "God,"
   and not the literal name of a specifically Muslim God (this is more
   clearly shown by the fact that Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews
   refer to God as "Allah" with no problem whatsoever). To Muslims, the
   Bible is a holy scripture and Jesus is a Holy Prophet (though not the
   savior and not the last prophet, who was Mohammed). Many Jews consider
   the messiah of Christianity (Jesus) to be a false god and some
   monotheists (notably fundamentalist Christians) hold that there is one
   triune God, and that all gods of other religions are actually demons in
   disguise (as in 2nd Corinthians 11 verse 14). Eastern religious
   believers and liberal Christians are more likely to assume those of
   other faiths worship the same God as they, just under a different name
   and/or form. Muslims believe that Jesus, although the Messiah and one
   of the holy Prophets, is not the son of God, because relating God to
   any partners or spouses or offspring is considered blasphemy and
   apostasy.

   Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God.
   Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the
   Universe. The distinctions between the two are subtle, and some
   consider them unhelpful. It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic
   Church, Theosophy, Hinduism, some divisions of Buddhism, and Taoism,
   along with many varying denominations and individuals within
   denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a
   pantheistic/panentheistic view of God — which has wide acceptance in
   Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov —
   but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in
   the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.

Speculative dilemmas

   Dystheism is a form of theism which holds that God is malevolent as a
   consequence of the problem of evil. Dystheistic speculation is common
   in theology, but there is no known church of practicing dystheists. See
   also Satanism.

   Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained without any
   reference to the supernatural, or to a supernatural being. Some
   non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is
   significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of
   human values and aspirations. Many schools of Buddhism may be
   considered non-theistic.

Existence question

   Many arguments for and against the existence of God have been proposed
   and rejected by philosophers, theologians, and other thinkers. In
   philosophical terminology, existence of God arguments concern schools
   of thought on the epistemology of the ontology of God.

   There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God.
   Some definitions of God's existence are so nonspecific that it is
   certain that something exists that meets the definition; while other
   definitions are apparently self-contradictory. Arguments for the
   existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive,
   and subjective types. Arguments against the existence of God typically
   include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions reached
   include God exists and this can be proven; God exists, but this cannot
   be proven or disproven; God does not exist; and no one knows.
   Additionally, the weight of popular belief and the overwhelming
   multiplicity of references to God serve to reify the idea of God -- to
   make the concept of God seem more probable than it would be in the
   absence of such attention.

Scientific perspective

   There is a lack of consensus as to the appropriate scientific treatment
   of religious questions, such as those of the existence and nature of
   God. A major point of debate has been whether God's existence or
   attributes can be empirically tested.

   Some definitions of God equate the deity with "whatever entity created
   the universe", or in some cases with the universe itself, or with
   omnipresence in the universe. Some claim that this reduces the God
   controversy to a question of terminology. In popular controversies,
   scientific advocates sometimes claim that there is no coherent question
   to be answered. They allege that the definition of God is too nebulous,
   varied, controversial, or non-sensical, that those arguing in favour of
   existence, when presented with evidence against, are always able to
   claim that the question has been improperly framed.

   Over time, scientists have wrestled with the question of whether the
   Creator was God's only role, how constrained that role could have been,
   the implications for determinism, and the question of whether or not
   the God has actively intervened in the affairs of the universe after
   the Big Bang.

   No empirical evidence, such as a miracle or response to prayer has
   gained scientific consensus as definitive proof of God's existence.
   Some claim that the multitude of world religions and historical
   evidence shows that humans invented God, not the other way around.
   However, the attribution of omnipotence to God gives rise to the
   "problem of the supernatural". Any omnipotent entity could by
   definition obscure any confirmatory evidence, or "plant" evidence of
   its own non-existence.
   The percentage of people in European countries who said in 2005 that
   they believe in God. Countries with Catholic or Muslim majorities tend
   to poll highest.
   Enlarge
   The percentage of people in European countries who said in 2005 that
   they believe in God. Countries with Catholic or Muslim majorities tend
   to poll highest.

   A common view divides the world into what Stephen Jay Gould called
   "non-overlapping magisteria". In this view, questions of the
   supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of
   God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of religion. The
   methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question
   about the natural world.

   One opposing view is that of scientism - any question which cannot be
   answered by science is either non-sensical or is not worth asking,
   because there is no empirical answer. This is sometimes related to the
   principle of Occam's razor.

   On a personal level, many scientists believe in God (whether in a
   non-interventionist or otherwise) and many others do not. For example,
   about 60% of scientists in the United States expressed disbelief or
   doubt in the existence of deities in 1996. This percentage has been
   fairly stable over the last 100 years. Among leading scientists defined
   as members of the National Academy of Sciences, 93% expressed disbelief
   or doubt in the existence of a personal god in 1998. Sigmund Freud
   regarded God as wish fulfillment for the perfect father figure. This
   however is an argument from motive.

Opinion statistics

   In 2005, approximately 54% of the world's population identifies with
   one of the three monotheistic Abrahamic religions. 15% identified as
   non-religious. A 1995 survey showed similar numbers for the
   non-religious, though on the specific question of belief in God, only
   3.8% identified as atheist.

Popular culture

   God, as a humanized figure, usually taking the form of a man, has often
   appeared as a character in various works of fiction such as movies,
   books, and television shows. Though depictions vary, he is usually
   portrayed as sage, wise, and old, with a patient and calm personality.
   In cartoons God is usually depicted as a caricature of Michelangelo's
   classic painting.
     * Depictions of God in popular culture
     * List of appearances of God in fiction
     * Parodies of God and religion

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