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Geography of India

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Geography of Asia

   Geography of {{{name}}}
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   Continent     Asia
   Region        Southern Asia
                 Indian subcontinent
   Coordinates   20°00'N 77°00' E
   Area          Ranked 7th
                 3,287,590 km²
                 1,269,345.60 miles²
                 90.44% land
                 9.56% water
   Coastline     7,516 km (4,670.23 miles)
   Borders       Total land borders:
                 14,103 km (8,763 miles)
                 Bangladesh:
                 4,053 km (2,520 miles)
                 Bhutan:
                 605 km (376 miles)
                 Myanmar:
                 1,463 km (909 miles)
                 China (PRC):
                 3,380 km (2,100 miles)
                 Nepal:
                 1,690 km (1,050 miles)
                 Pakistan:
                 2,912 km (1,809 miles)
   Highest point Kanchenjunga
                 8,598 m (28,209 ft)
   Lowest point  Kuttanad
                 −2.2 m (−7.2 ft)
   Longest river Ganges- Brahmaputra
   Largest lake  Chilka Lake

   The geography of India is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging
   from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts, plains, hills and
   plateaus. India comprises most of the Indian subcontinent situated on
   the Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate.
   Having a coastline of over 7,000 km (4,300 miles), most of India lies
   on a peninsula in southern Asia that protrudes into the Indian Ocean.
   India is bounded in the southwest by the Arabian Sea and in the
   southeast by the Bay of Bengal.

   The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain occupies most of northern, central and
   eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern
   India. To the west of the country is the Thar Desert, which consists of
   a mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border
   consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is
   disputed due to a territorial dispute with Pakistan; according to
   India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed Kashmir
   territory) is K2, at 8,611 m (28,251 feet). The highest point in
   undisputed Indian territory is Kangchenjunga, at 8,598 m (28,208 feet).
   Climate ranges from equatorial in the far south, to tundra in the
   Himalayan altitudes.

   India is bordered by Pakistan, the People's Republic of China,
   Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. Sri Lanka and the
   Maldives are island nations to the south of India. Politically, India
   is divided into 28 states, six federally administered union territories
   and a national capital territory. The political divisions generally
   follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic
   transitions.

Location and extent

   Kanyakumari is the southernmost point in mainland India.
   Enlarge
   Kanyakumari is the southernmost point in mainland India.

   India lies to the north of the equator between 8 degree 4 minutes and
   37 degree 6 minutes north latitude and 68 degrees 7 minutes and
   97 degrees 25 minutes east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country
   in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,590 km² (1,269,219 square
   miles). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 miles) from north to south and
   2,933 km (1,822 miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of
   15,200 km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5 km (4,670.5 miles).
   The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in
   the Arabian Sea are parts of India.

   India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the
   southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, northeast, and northwest
   are the Himalayas. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the
   Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean.

Political geography

   India is divided into 29 states (which are further subdivided into
   districts), six union territories and the National Capital Territory of
   Delhi. States have their own elected government, while Union
   Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union
   government.
   States and territories of India
   Enlarge
   States and territories of India

   States:
    1. Andhra Pradesh
    2. Arunachal Pradesh
    3. Assam
    4. Bihar
    5. Chhattisgarh
    6. Goa
    7. Gujarat
    8. Haryana
    9. Himachal Pradesh
   10. Jammu and Kashmir
   11. Jharkhand
   12. Karnataka
   13. Kerala
   14. Madhya Pradesh

                        15. Maharashtra
                        16. Manipur
                        17. Meghalaya
                        18. Mizoram
                        19. Nagaland
                        20. Orissa
                        21. Punjab
                        22. Rajasthan
                        23. Sikkim
                        24. Tamil Nadu
                        25. Tripura
                        26. Uttaranchal
                        27. Uttar Pradesh
                        28. West Bengal

   Union Territories:
    A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
    B. Chandigarh
    C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
    D. Daman and Diu
    E. Lakshadweep
    F. Puducherry
    G. National Capital Territory of Delhi

   The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India but disputed by
   Pakistan and China, who administer parts of the territory. The state of
   Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China but administered by India.

Geographical regions

   India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are
    1. The northern mountains including the Himalayas and the northeast
       mountain ranges.
    2. Indo-Gangetic plains
    3. Thar Desert
    4. Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau
    5. East Coast
    6. West Coast
    7. Bordering seas and islands

Mountains

   Map of the hilly regions in India.
   Enlarge
   Map of the hilly regions in India.

   A great arc of mountains, composed of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, and
   Patkai ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were
   formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the
   Eurasian Plate which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain
   ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and
   provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also
   facilitate the monsoons that drive climate in India. The protection and
   climatic control they have provided has been a geographical quality
   that has assisted India's position as a Great power. The numerous
   rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile
   Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers
   as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the
   temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and
   subtropical Indomalaya ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent
   and extend into Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Historically, these
   ranges have served as barriers to invaders.

   India has seven major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000 m
   (3,300 feet). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have
   snow-capped peaks. These ranges are:
    1. Aravalli
    2. Eastern Ghats
    3. Himalayas
    4. Patkai
    5. Vindhyas
    6. Sahyadri or Western Ghats
    7. Satpuras
    8. Karakoram

   A composite image of the Himalaya.
   Enlarge
   A composite image of the Himalaya.

   The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They
   form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia.
   The Himalayas are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and
   extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500 km (1,550 miles),
   covering an area of 500,000 km² (193,000 square miles).
   Himalayan peaks in Sikkim.
   Enlarge
   Himalayan peaks in Sikkim.

   The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to
   the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with
   Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan
   region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000 m (23,000 feet)
   and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,600 feet) in Sikkim to
   around 3,000 m (9,850 feet) in Kashmir. Kangchenjunga, which lies in
   Sikkim, is the highest point in the country's territory (undisputed).
   Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year.

   The Shiwalik, or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the
   Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable,
   with landslides being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season.
   Many of India's hill stations are located on this range. The climate
   varies from sub tropical in the foothills to tundra at the higher
   elevations of these mountain ranges.

   The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the
   Patkai or the Purvanchal. They were created by the same tectonic
   processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features
   of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys.
   The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are
   three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the Garo-
   Khasi- Jaintia, and the Lushai hills. The Garo-Khasi range is in the
   Indian state of Meghalaya. The climate ranges from temperate to alpine
   due to altitude. Cherrapunji, which lies on the windward side of these
   hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world,
   receiving the highest annual rainfall.
   The Vindhyas in central India.
   Enlarge
   The Vindhyas in central India.

   The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, covering a
   distance of 1,050 km (652 miles). The average elevation of these hills
   is 300 m (1,000 feet). They are believed to have been formed by the
   wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravalli mountains.
   It geographically separates northern India from southern India. The
   western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with
   the state of Madhya Pradesh, and the range runs east and north nearly
   to the Ganges River at Mirzapur.

   The Satpura Range is a range of hills in central India. It begins in
   eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast, then runs east through
   Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and ends in the state of Chhattisgarh. It
   extends for a distance of 900 km with many of its peaks rising above
   1000 m (3,300 feet). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at
   Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada
   river. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north,
   and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of
   northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada
   runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and
   drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards
   the Arabian Sea.
   The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.
   Enlarge
   The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.

   The Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running from
   northeast to southwest across Rajasthan in western India, extending
   approximately 500 km (310 miles). The northern end of the range
   continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near
   Delhi. The highest peak is Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,653 feet),
   lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border
   with Gujarat. The city of Ajmer with its lake lies on the southern
   slope of the range in Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub
   of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The
   range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen. The
   range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton,
   the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand
   segment to the southeast. The present Aravalli range is only a remnant
   of the gigantic system that existed in prehistoric times with several
   of its sum mits rising above the snow line and nourishing glaciers of
   stupendous magnitude which in turn fed many great rivers.
   Elevated regions in India.
   Enlarge
   Elevated regions in India.

   The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of
   India's Deccan Plateau, and separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow
   coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range starts south of the
   Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, and runs
   approximately 1,600 km (1,000 miles) through the states of Maharashtra,
   Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, almost to the southern tip of
   the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000 m with the
   higher peaks occurring in the southern section in Nilgiris and in
   Kerala. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in
   Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.

   The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have
   been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India,
   the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. These mountain ranges
   extend from West Bengal in the north, through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
   to Tamil Nadu in the south. They run parallel to the Bay of Bengal and
   are not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over
   1000 m in height.

   The Eastern and Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri or Malay knot in
   Tamil Nadu. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet)
   in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris are
   considered to be a part of the Western Ghats.

Indo-Gangetic plain

   A satellite view of the Gangetic plains.
   Enlarge
   A satellite view of the Gangetic plains.
   Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.
   Enlarge
   Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.

   The Indo-Gangetic plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the
   Ganga- Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya
   mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east,
   draining the states of Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Uttar
   Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The plains encompass an area
   of 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²) and vary in width through their length
   by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this
   system are the Ganga (Ganges) and Indus River along with their
   tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

   The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of
   uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous
   rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive
   for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water
   sources.

   The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. Crops
   grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily rice and wheat, grown in
   rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane and cotton. Also known
   as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's
   most densely populated areas. Water bodies of India are Indian ocean,
   arabian sea, bay of bengal.

Thar Desert

   Jaisalmer in Rajasthan is situated in the heart of the Thar Desert. The
   region is arid and dusty.
   Enlarge
   Jaisalmer in Rajasthan is situated in the heart of the Thar Desert. The
   region is arid and dusty.

   The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is a hot desert
   that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four
   states in India – Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat it covers an
   area of 208,110 km² (80,350 mile²). The desert continues into Pakistan
   as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in
   Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is
   rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy.

   The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it
   to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity
   began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme
   temperatures of above 45 ° C (113 ° F) in summer to below freezing in
   winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm
   (4.72 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.75 in) eastward. The lack
   of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with
   respect to the Aravalli range. The desert lies in the rain shadow area
   of the Bay of Bengal arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature
   of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not
   receive much rainfall.

   The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the
   little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the
   Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the
   River Luni between the towns of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, up to the
   northern areas. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to
   sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the
   topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a
   hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum. Due to the low
   population density, the effect of the population on the environment is
   relatively less compared to the rest of India.

Highlands

   The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus – the Malwa
   Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south, (covering most of
   the Indian peninsula); and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand
   towards the east.
   Satellite image of the Deccan region of southern India
   Enlarge
   Satellite image of the Deccan region of southern India

   The Deccan plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the
   Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The
   Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km² (735,000 mile²). It is
   mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to
   2,000 feet).

   The name Deccan comes from the Sanskrit word dakshina, which means "the
   south". The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to
   several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri
   and the Narmada. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the
   leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn
   scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf
   forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters.

   The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers
   much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and
   Chhattisgarh. The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately
   65,000 km² (25,000 mile²). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three
   smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The
   Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average
   elevation of 700 m (2,300 feet). Much of the plateau is forested,
   covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. The plateau is
   famous for its vast reserves of ores and coal.

   Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat
   is another large peninsula of India.

East coast

   The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the
   Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in
   the south to West Bengal in the north. Deltas of many of India's rivers
   form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri
   and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the
   Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall
   averaging between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of
   the plains varies between 100 to 130 km (62 to 80 miles).

   The plains are divided into six regions: The Mahanadi delta; the
   southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the
   Kanyakumari coast; Coromandel Coast and sandy littoral.

West coast

   A view of India's west coast at Goa, near the border with Maharashtra.
   Enlarge
   A view of India's west coast at Goa, near the border with Maharashtra.

   The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between
   the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in
   the north and extends across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka
   and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100 km (30 to
   60 miles) in width.

   Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers,
   which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly
   perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the
   formation of estuaries rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into
   the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari.

   The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of
   Maharashtra and Goa is known as the Konkan Coast, the central region of
   Karnataka is known as the Kanara Coast and the southern coastline of
   Kerala is known as the Malabar Coast. Vegetation in this region is
   mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known
   as the Malabar Coast moist forests.

Islands

   India has two major offshore island possessions: the Lakshadweep
   islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Both these island groups
   are administered by the Union government of India as Union Territories.

   The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles) off the
   coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve coral atolls,
   three coral reefs, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.

   The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the
   Myanmar coast. It is located 950 km (590 miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta)
   and 193 km (120 miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar. The territory
   consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar
   Islands. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total
   length of 352 km (220 miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of
   the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of
   1,841 km² (710 mile²). The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m
   (2,140 feet). Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated
   in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 miles) from the
   Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast.

   Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former
   Portuguese exclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Salcette
   Island, India's most populous island, on which Mumbai (Bombay) city is
   located; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in
   Andhra Pradesh.

Rivers

   Rivers in India.
   Enlarge
   Rivers in India.

   All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main
   watersheds. They are:
    1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
    2. Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
    3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

   The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a continuous flow
   throughout the year. The other two networks are dependent on the
   monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season.

   Twelve of India's rivers are classified as major, with the total
   catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km² (976,000 mile²).
   The Teesta River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra in northern West
   Bengal.
   Enlarge
   The Teesta River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra in northern West
   Bengal.

   Himalayan rivers or the northern rivers that flow westward into
   Pakistan are the Indus, Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Jhelum.

   The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of
   1,100,000 km² (424,700 mile²). The river Ganga originates at the
   Gangotri Glacier in Uttaranchal. It flows in a south easterly
   direction, draining into Bangladesh. The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also
   arise in the Western Himalayas and join the Ganga river in the plains.
   The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganga originates in Tibet and
   enters India in the far eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh. It then
   proceeds westwards, unifying with the Ganga in Bangladesh.
   The Narmada River in central India.
   Enlarge
   The Narmada River in central India.

   The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganga originates from the
   Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward flowing
   rivers from this watershed are the Narmada (also called Nerbudda) and
   Tapti (also spelled Tapi) rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea in
   Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10%
   of the total outflow.

   The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers. Major rivers in
   the Deccan include the Mahanadi River through the Mahanadi River Delta,
   Godavari River, Krishna River, and Kaveri River (also spelled Cauvery),
   all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of
   India's total outflow.

Bodies of water

   The Pangong Lake in Ladakh, is a fine example of a mountain lake in the
   Himalayas.
   Enlarge
   The Pangong Lake in Ladakh, is a fine example of a mountain lake in the
   Himalayas.

   Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of
   Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait which separates India from Sri
   Lanka and the Ten Degree Channel, separating the Andamans from the
   Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel separating the Laccadive
   and Amindivi Islands from Minicoy Island towards the south. Important
   capes include the Cape Comorin, the southern tip of mainland India,
   Indira Point, the southernmost location of India, Rama's Bridge and
   Point Calimere. Arabian Sea is to the west of India. Bay of Bengal is
   to the eastern side of India while India Ocean is to the South of
   India.

   Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are
   four coral reefs in India and are located in; the Andaman and Nicobar
   Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Kutch.

   Important lakes include Chilka Lake, the country's largest salt-water
   lake in Orissa; Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Loktak Lake in Manipur,
   Dal Lake in Kashmir, Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, and the Sasthamkotta
   Lake in Kerala.

Wetlands

   India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid;
   from ones in the Ladakh region in the state of Jammu and Kashmir to the
   ones in the wet and humid climate of peninsula India. Most of the
   wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to India's river networks.
   The Indian government has identified a total of 22 wetlands for
   conservation. Among the protected wetlands are the tropical mangrove
   forests in peninsular India and the salt mudflats in western India.

   Mangrove forests occur all along the Indian coastline, in sheltered
   estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mud flats. The mangrove
   area covers a total of 6,740 km² (2,600 mile²) which comprises 7% of
   the world's total mangrove cover. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the
   Sundarbans; Gulf of Kutch; deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and
   Krishna; and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala have large
   mangrove covers.

   Most of the identified wetlands adjoin or are parts of sanctuaries,
   national parks and are thus protected.

The Sundarbans

   Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh and India
   Enlarge
   Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh and India

   The Sundarbans delta is the largest mangrove forest in the world. It
   lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of
   Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions
   of the jungle are listed in the UNESCO world heritage list separately
   as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively, though
   they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a
   complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of
   salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of
   ongoing ecological processes.

   The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among
   these is the Bengal Tiger, but numerous species of birds, spotted deer,
   crocodiles and snakes also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are
   now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

Rann of Kutch

   The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in the Gujarat state of
   India, which borders the Sindh region of Pakistan. The name Rann comes
   from the Hindi word ran meaning "salt marsh." It occupies a total area
   of 27,900 km² (10,800 mile²).

   The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces,
   most likely by earthquakes, resulted in the damming up of the region,
   turning it into a large salt-water lagoon. This area gradually filled
   with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the
   monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to
   knee-depth height. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes
   parched.

Climate

   India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar
   Desert. The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan,
   provide a barrier to the cold winds from central Asia. This keeps most
   of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations in similar
   latitudes. The Thar Desert is responsible for attracting the moisture
   laden monsoon winds that provide most of India's rainfall.

   It is difficult to generalise India's climate. India's huge size sees
   climatic conditions in Kashmir having little relation to that in the
   extreme south. In addition to this, the varied topography of the land
   sees many regions having their own microclimates. Climate in India
   ranges from tropical in the south to a temperate climate in the north.
   Parts of India in the Himalayas have a polar climate.

   Meteorologists divide the year into four main seasons for most of the
   country: monsoon, summer, winter and withdrawal of the monsoons. Parts
   of India that lie in the Himalayan region see five seasons: spring,
   summer, monsoons, autumn and winter. Sustained snowfalls occur only in
   the elevated sections.
   Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.
   Enlarge
   Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.

   Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India.
   Temperatures exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during the day. The coastal regions
   exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar
   desert area temperatures can exceed 45 °C (113 °F).

   Summer is followed by the southwest monsoon rains that provide most of
   India with its rainfall. The rain-bearing clouds are attracted to the
   low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The official date for
   the arrival of the monsoon is 1 June, when the monsoon crosses the
   Kerala coast. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of
   Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves
   north-wards crossing northeast India in early June. It then progresses
   eastwards, crossing Delhi by June 29. The Arabian Sea arm moves
   north-wards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of
   Western Ghats. By early July, most of India receives rain from the
   monsoons.

   The monsoons start retreating by August from northern India and by
   October from Kerala. This short period after the retreat is known as
   the retreat of the monsoons and is characterised by still weather. By
   November, winter starts setting in the northern areas.

   Winters start in November in northern India and late December in
   southern India. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and
   cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in
   some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of
   northern India is plagued by fog during this season.

   The highest temperature recoded in India was 50.6 °C (123.08 °F) in
   Alwar in 1955. The lowest was −45 °C (−49 °F) in Kashmir. Recent claims
   of temperatures touching 55 °C (131 °F) in Orissa have been met with
   some scepticism by the Indian Meteorological Department, largely on the
   method of recording of such data.

Geology

   Geological regions of India
   Enlarge
   Geological regions of India

   India has a varied geology spanning the entire spectrum of the
   geological time period. India's geological features are classified
   based on their era of formation.

   The Pre-Cambrian period formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are
   spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this
   period is spread over western and central India.

   The Paleozoic Era formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian
   and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir
   and Himachal Pradesh.

   The Mesozoic Era Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the
   northern Deccan. Geologists believe that the Deccan Traps were the
   result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in
   colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian
   System, Triassic and Jurassic systems are seen in the western
   Himalayas. The Jurassic system is also seen in Rajasthan.

   Tertiary Period imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, parts
   of Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous
   system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the
   Indo-Gangetic plains. The Gondowana system is also seen in the Narmada
   River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in
   the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch
   and in Assam.

   The Pleistocene system is found over central India. It is rich in
   minerals such as lignite, iron ore, manganese and aluminium. The
   Andaman and Nicobar Island groups are thought to have been formed in
   this era by volcanoes.

   The Himalayas are a result of the convergence and deformation of the
   Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises
   the height of the Himalayas by 1 cm each year.

Natural disasters

   Disaster prone regions in India
   Enlarge
   Disaster prone regions in India

   India is prone to several natural disasters, responsible for huge
   losses in life and property. Natural disasters in India include
   droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive flooding
   from monsoonal rains; severe cyclones; tsunamis; volcanic eruptions;
   hurricanes; landslides; avalanche; snowstorms; and earthquakes.

   Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. During the
   monsoon season, heavy rainfall may cause rivers to distend their banks,
   often flooding the surrounding areas. The Brahmaputra River is prone to
   perennial flooding during the monsoon season. Floods are responsible
   for a number of deaths and property loss in many parts of India. With
   the exception of a few states, almost all of India is prone to
   flooding.

   Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of
   water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons results in
   water deficiency in the region causing extensive crop losses. Drought
   prone regions include south Maharashtra, north Karnataka, Andhra
   Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. In the past, failure of
   monsoons has led to famines causing great damage.

   According to earthquake hazard zoning of India, tectonic plates beneath
   the earth's surface are responsible for yearly earthquakes along the
   Himalayan belt and in northeast India. This region is classified as a
   Zone V, indicating that it is a very high-risk area. Parts of western
   India, around the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra, are
   classified as a Zone IV region (high risk). Other areas have a moderate
   to low risk chance of an earthquake occurring.

   Cyclones are another natural disaster, affecting thousands living in
   the coastal regions. Cyclones are severe and bring with them heavy
   rains that cut off supplies and relief to the affected areas. On 2004-
   12-26, a tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake struck the
   Andaman and Nicobar Islands and India's east coast resulting in the
   loss of over ten thousand individuals. Until then India was thought to
   have negligible activity related to tsunamis, though there is
   historical anecdotal evidence of its occurrence in the past.

   India has one active volcano: the Barren Island volcano which last
   erupted in May 2005. There is also a dormant volcano called the
   Narcondum and a Mud volcano at Baratang. All these volcanoes lie in the
   Andaman Islands.

   Landslides are common in the Lower Himalaya owing to labile rock
   formations due to the young age of the hills. Parts of the Western
   Ghats also suffer from low intensity landslides. Avalanches occur in
   Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim.

   During the summer months, dust storms cause immense property damage in
   northern India. These storms bring with it large amounts of dust from
   arid regions. Hailstones are common in parts of India, and cause severe
   damage to the standing crops.

International agreements

   India is a party to several International agreements related to
   environment and climate, the most prominent among them are:
   Treaties and Agreements
    Specific Regions and Seas The Antarctic Treaty, Law of the Sea, Ship
                     Pollution ( MARPOL 73/78), Whaling
     Atmosphere and Climate Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol, Ozone Layer
                        Protection, Nuclear Test Ban
      Biodiversity, Environment and Forests Desertification, Endangered
    Species, Environmental Modification, Tropical Timber 83 and Tropical
                             Timber 94, Wetlands
                           Wastes Hazardous Wastes
                         Rivers Indus Waters Treaty

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