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Genghis Khan

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Historical figures

   CAPTION: Genghis Khan
   (Temujin)

             Genghis Khan portrait
   Birth name:     Temüjin
   Family name:    Borjigin
   Title:          Khagan of Mongol Empire
   Birth:          c. 1162
   Place of birth: Hentiy, Mongolia
   Death:          18 August 1227
   Dates of reign: 1206 – 18 August 1227
   Succeeded by:   Ögedei Khan
   Marriage:       Börte Ujin, Kulan, Yisugen,
                   Yisui, many others
   Children:
                     * Borjigin Jochi, son
                     * Borjigin Chagatai, son
                     * Borjigin Ögedei, son
                     * Borjigin Tolui, son
                     * Others

   Genghis Khan  or Temüjin by birthname, ( c. 1162– August 18, 1227) (
   IPA: [ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ], Mongolian: Чингис Хаан, Chinese: 成吉思汗 Chéngjísī
   Hán, Turkic: Chengez Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Xaan, Chingis Khan,
   Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, Cengiz Han etc.), was a Mongol political
   and military leader or Khan (posthumously Khagan) who united the Mongol
   tribes and founded the Mongol Empire (Yeke Mongol Ulus, Екэ Монгол
   Улус), (1206–1368), the largest contiguous empire in world history.
   Born to the name Temüjin in the Borjigin family (Mongolian: Тэмүүжин,
   Traditional Chinese: 鐵木真; pinyin: Tiěmùzhēn), he forged a powerful army
   based on meritocracy to become one of the most successful military
   leaders in history.

   While his image in most of the world is that of a ruthless,
   bloodthirsty conqueror, Genghis Khan is an iconic and beloved figure in
   Mongolia, where he is seen as the father of the Mongol Nation (see also
   Mongolia). Before becoming a Khan, Temüjin eliminated and united many
   of the nomadic tribes of north East Asia and Central Asia under a
   social identity as the " Mongols."

   Starting with the invasion of Western Xia and Jin Dynasty in northern
   China and consolidating through numerous conquests including the
   Khwarezmid Empire in Persia, Mongol rule across the Eurasian landmass
   radically altered the demography and geopolitics of these areas. The
   Mongol Empire ended up ruling, or at least briefly conquering, large
   parts of modern day China, Mongolia, Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia,
   Georgia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,
   Pakistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Moldova, and Kuwait.

Early life

Birth

   The Onon river, Mongolia in fall, a site where Temujin was born and
   grew up.
   Enlarge
   The Onon river, Mongolia in fall, a site where Temujin was born and
   grew up.

   Little is known about his early life, and the few sources providing
   insight into this period do not agree on many basic facts. He was
   likely born around 1162 to 1167 in the mountainous area of Burhan
   Haldun in Mongolia's Hentiy Province near the Onon and the Herlen
   (Kherülen) rivers. Folklore and legend stated that when Temujin was
   born he clutched a blood clot in his fist, an indication that he was
   destined to go on to do great things. He was the eldest son of
   Yesükhei, a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and a nöker (vassal) of Ong
   Khan of the Kerait tribe, possibly descended from a family of
   blacksmiths (see below, name). Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin
   (Боржигин), and his mother, Hoelun, was of the Olkhunut tribe of the
   Mongol confederation. They were nomads like almost all Central Asian
   Turkic and Mongol confederations.

Family

   Temüjin was related through his own father to Qabul Khan, Ambaghai and
   Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under the Jin
   Dynasty until the Jin switched support to the Tatars in 1161 and
   destroyed Qabul Khan. Genghis' father, Yesugei (khan of the Borjigin
   and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan) emerged as the head of the
   ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the
   rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the
   Tatars, in turn, grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin moved their
   support from the Tatars to the Kerait.

   Temüjin had three brothers, Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and
   one sister, Temülen (or Temulin), as well as two half-brothers, Bekhter
   and Belgutei.

   Genghis Khan's empress and first wife Borte had four sons, Jochi
   (1185–1226), Chagatai (?—1241), Ögedei (?—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232).
   Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but
   they were excluded from the succession, and records on what daughters
   he may have had are scarce. The paternity of Genghis Khan's eldest son,
   Jochi, remains unclear to this day and was a serious point of
   contention in his lifetime. Soon after Borte's marriage to Temüjin, she
   was kidnapped by the Merkits and reportedly given to one of their men
   as a wife. Though she was rescued, she gave birth to Jochi nine months
   later, clouding the issue of his parentage.

   According to traditional historical accounts, this uncertainty over
   Jochi's true father was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. According to
   The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the
   Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declared before his father
   and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's
   successor. In response to this tension and possibly for other reasons,
   it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor and who ruled as Khagan
   after Genghis Khan's death. Jochi died in 1226, before his father.

Childhood

   Mongolian ger (yurt) similar to the one Temüjin was born and grew up
   in.
   Enlarge
   Mongolian ger ( yurt) similar to the one Temüjin was born and grew up
   in.

   Based on legends and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult.
   When he was only nine, as part of the marriage arrangement, his father
   Yesukhei delivered Temüjin to the family of his future wife Borte,
   members of the Onggirat tribe. He was to live there in service to
   Deisechen, the head of the household, until he reached the marriageable
   age of 12.

   While heading home his father was poisoned by eating poisoned food from
   the neighbouring Tatars in retaliation for his campaigns and raids
   against them. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief,
   although his father's clan refused to be led by a mere boy and soon
   abandoned him and his family including his mother Hoelun.

   For the next few years, Temüjin and his family lived the life of
   impoverished nomads, surviving primarily on wild fruits, marmots and
   other small game. In one incident, Temüjin murdered his half-brother
   Bekhter over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. Despite being
   severely reproached by his mother, he never expressed any remorse over
   the killing. The incident also cemented his position as head of the
   household. In another incident in 1182, he was captured in a raid by
   his former tribe, the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut
   enslaved Temüjin (reportedly with a cangue), but he escaped with help
   from a sympathetic captor, the father of Chilaun, a future general of
   Genghis Khan. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons about
   survival in the harsh landscape and even grimmer political climate of
   Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, a lesson which
   would shape his understanding in his later years. Jelme and Bo'orchu,
   two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him around this time.
   Along with his brothers, they provided the manpower needed for early
   expansion and diplomacy.

   Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe around the age of 16, being
   betrothed as children by their parents as a customary way to forge a
   tribal alliance. She was later kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe,
   and Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival,
   Jamuqa, and his protector, Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe. She remained
   his only empress, although he followed tradition by taking several
   morganatic wives. Börte's first child, Jochi, was born roughly nine
   months after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions about
   the child's paternity.

   Temüjin became blood brother (anda) with Jamuqa, and thus the two made
   a vow to be faithful to each other for eternity.

Uniting the Central Asian confederations

   Eurasia in c. 1200. including Naimans, Merkits, Uyghurs, Mongols, and
   Keraits
   Enlarge
   Eurasia in c. 1200. including Naimans, Merkits, Uyghurs, Mongols, and
   Keraits

   Main Central Asian confederations at the time of Temujin's unification
   were:
     * Naimans (also known as Naiman Mongols)
     * Merkits
     * Uyghurs
     * Tatars
     * Mongols
     * Keraits

   The main opponents of the Mongols by around c. 1100 were the Naimans to
   the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, the Jin and
   Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin and his advisors had united
   together the Mongol confederation only. As an incentive for absolute
   obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yassa code, he
   promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible war spoils.
   However, the exact words of the Yassa are unknown because it was never
   found.

From Temüjin to Genghis Khan

   Genghis Khan

   Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by offering himself as a vassal
   to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was
   Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Ong Khan (or "
   Wang Khan"), which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This
   relationship was first reinforced when Borte was captured by the
   Merkits; it was to Toghrul that Temüjin turned for support. In
   response, Toghrul offered his vassal 20,000 of his Kerait warriors and
   suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamuqa, who had
   himself become khan of his own tribe, the Jajirats. Although the
   campaign was successful and led to the recapture of Borte and utter
   defeat of the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between the
   childhood friends, Temüjin and Jamuqa.

   Toghrul's son, Senggum, was jealous of Temüjin's growing power and he
   allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Toghrul, though allegedly
   saved on multiple occasions by Temüjin, gave in to his son and adopted
   an obstinate attitude towards collaboration with Temüjin. Temüjin
   learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his
   loyalists. One of the later ruptures between Toghrul and Temüjin was
   Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest
   son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This
   act probably led to the split between both factions and was a prelude
   to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuqa, Temüjin's blood brother, or
   anda, and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions
   between Toghrul and Jamuqa, as well as the desertion of many clans that
   fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat.
   This paved the way for the fall and extinction of the Kerait tribe.

   The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans, with whom Jamuqa and
   his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although
   enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a
   Khuriltai elected Jamuqa as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by
   the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuqa's assumption of this
   title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuqa formed a coalition
   of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals
   abandoned Jamuqa, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger
   brother. After several battles, Jamuqa was finally captured in 1206
   after several shepherds kidnapped and turned him over to Temüjin.

   According to the Secret History, Temüjin generously offered his
   friendship again to Jamuqa and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuqa
   refused and asked for a noble death, that is, without spilling blood,
   which was granted by breaking his back. The rest of the Merkit clan
   that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai (or Subedei), a
   member of Temüjin's personal guard who would later become one of the
   greatest commanders in the service of the Khan. The Naimans' defeat
   left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains. All these
   confederations were united and became known as the Mongols.

   By 1206,Temüjin managed to unite the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols,
   Uyghurs, Keraits, Tatars and disparate other smaller tribes under his
   rule through his charisma, dedication, and strong will. It was a
   monumental feat for the "Mongols" (as they became known collectively),
   who had a long history of internecine dispute, economic hardship, and
   pressure from Chinese dynasties and empires. At a Kurultai, a council
   of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated
   tribes and took the title Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not
   conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor,
   Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his
   father (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the
   Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan
   established peace between previously warring tribes. The population of
   the whole Mongol nation was around 200,000 people including civilians
   with approximately 70,000 soldiers at the formation of unified Mongol
   nation.

Military campaigns

First war with Western Xia

   The Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan in 1206 was bordered on the
   west by the Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin
   Dynasty, who at the time ruled northern China as well as being the
   traditional overlord of the Mongolian tribes. Temüjin organized his
   people and his state to prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia,
   that was closer to the Mongol border. He believed that the Jin Dynasty
   had a young ruler who would not come to the aid of Tanguts of Xi Xia.
   He guessed correctly. When the Tanguts requested the Jin Dynasty for
   help, they were refused.

   The Jurchen had also grown uncomfortable with the newly unified
   Mongols. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory,
   and they might have feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the
   supply of goods coming from the Silk Road. Genghis Khan also was eager
   to take revenge against the Jurchen for their long subjugation of the
   Mongols by stirring up conflicts between Mongol tribes. The Jurchen had
   executed some Mongol Khans in the past.

   Eventually, Genghis Khan led his army against Western Xia and conquered
   it, despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities.
   By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord.

Defeat of the Jin Dynasty

   In 1211, Genghis set about bringing the Nüzhen (the founders of the Qin
   Dynasty) completely under his dominion. The commander of the Jin army
   made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first
   opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan, to
   the Mongol side, who promptly defected and told the Mongols that the
   Qin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement
   fought at Badger Pass the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops.
   Decades later, when the Taoist sage Ch'ang Ch'un was passing through
   this pass to meet Genghis Khan, he was stunned to still see the bones
   of so many people scattered in the pass. On his way back, he camped
   close to this pass for three days and prayed for the departed souls. In
   1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing
   (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuanzong to move
   his capital south to Kaifeng.

Conquest of the Kara-Khitan Khanate

   Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation, had
   fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara
   Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By
   this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous
   campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Nüzhen. Therefore,
   Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under a
   brilliant young general, Jebe known as "The Arrow".

   An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents,
   leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country;
   Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar. Kuchlug fled, but was
   hunted down by Jebe and executed, and Kara-Khitan was annexed by
   Genghis Khan.

   By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash, which
   bordored the Khwarezmia, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea
   in the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire

   Khwarezmid Empire (1190–1220)
   Enlarge
   Khwarezmid Empire (1190–1220)

   After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a
   border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia, governed by Shah Ala ad-Din
   Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a
   commercial partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to officially establish
   trade ties with Khwarezmia. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the
   Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from
   Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against
   Khwarezmia. The governor later refused to make repayments for the
   looting of the caravan and murder of its members. Genghis Khan then
   sent a second group of ambassadors to meet the Shah himself. The shah
   had all the men shaved and all but one beheaded. This was seen as an
   affront to Khan himself. This led Genghis Khan to attack the
   Khwarezmian Dynasty. The Mongols crossed the Tien Shan Mountains,
   coming into the Shah's empire.

   After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully
   prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi
   led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second
   division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of
   Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on
   Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to
   the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.

   The Shah's army were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and by
   the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated
   in various cities — this fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's
   defeats. The Shah's fearful attitude towards the Mongol army also did
   not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in
   destroying Khwarizm.

   Tired and exhausted from the journey, the Mongols still won their first
   victory against the Khwarezmian army. The Mongol army quickly seized
   the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he
   had conquered the city, Genghis Khan executed many of the inhabitants
   and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes,
   as retribution for the insult.
   Image:Mosque in Samarkand.jpg
   A minaret in Samarkand.

   According to stories, Khan diverted a river of Ala ad-Din Muhammad II
   of Khwarezm's birthplace, erasing it from the map. The Mongols'
   conquest of the capital was nothing short of brutal: the bodies of
   citizens and soldiers filled the trenches surrounding the city,
   allowing the Mongols to enter raping, pillaging and plundering homes
   and temples.

   In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged
   Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and
   20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small
   island within his empire.

   By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated. After Samarkand fell,
   Bukhara became the capital of Jorezm, while two Mongol generals
   advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir
   of Shah Jalal Al-Din and a brilliant strategist, who was supported
   enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's
   armies. However, internal disputes once again split his forces apart,
   and Jorezm was forced to flee Bukhara after a devastating defeat.

   Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his
   army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct
   descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted
   generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.

Attacks on Georgia and Volga Bulgaria

   Georgia at the eve of reconnaissance by Subutai and Jebe generals
   Enlarge
   Georgia at the eve of reconnaissance by Subutai and Jebe generals

   These campaigns were the start of Mongol invasion of Rus and Mongol
   invasion of Europe by almost two decades until 1240s.

   After conquering the Khwarezmid Empire, the Mongols split into two
   component forces. Genghis Khan led a division on a raid through
   Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his
   generals Jebe and Subutai, marched through the Caucasus and Russia.
   Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged
   settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge
   Genghis Khan as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both
   divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added
   Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.

   While Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia, a
   detached force of 20,000 troops, commanded by Jebe and Subutai, pushed
   deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed Georgia, sacked
   the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea, and stayed over winter
   near the Black Sea.

   Heading home, Mongols assaulted the Kipchaks and were intercepted by
   the allied troops of Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of
   Kiev, along with about 80,000 Kievan Rus'. Subutai sent emissaries to
   the Slavic princes calling for separate peace, but the emissaries were
   executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, the Mongols defeated
   the larger Kievan force. The Russian princes then sued for peace.
   Subedei agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was
   customary in Mongol society for nobility the Russian princes were given
   a bloodless death. Subedei had a large wooden platform constructed on
   which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian
   princes, including Mstislav of Kiev, were put under this platform and
   they were crushed to death.

   Subotai's army lost to Volga Bulgars in the first attempt in 1223,
   though they returned to avenge their defeat by subjugating all Volga
   Bulgaria under the Khanate Golden Horde. The Mongols learned from
   captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory,
   allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe.

   Genghis Khan recalled this force back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and
   Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. This famous cavalry expedition
   of Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea
   defeating every single army in their path, remains unparalleled to this
   day.

Second war with Western Xia and Jin Dynasty

   Western Xia, Jin Empire (yellow), Song China (red) and Dali (purple) in
   1142.
   Enlarge
   Western Xia, Jin Empire (yellow), Song China (red) and Dali (purple) in
   1142.

   The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts in 1202,
   1207, 1209–1210, 1211–1213, 1214–1219 and 1225–1226. The vassal emperor
   of the Tanguts ( Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war
   against the Khwarezmid Empire. While Genghis Khan was busy with the
   campaign in Persia against the Khwarezmid Empire, Tangut and Jin formed
   an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis Khan prepared
   for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance.

   In 1226, Genghis Khan began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took
   Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One
   of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near
   Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan
   means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In
   November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed
   the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis Khan
   reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and
   interpreted it as an omen of his victory.

   In 1227, Genghis attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia,
   and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining
   province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At
   Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for
   several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside
   the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows
   in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (
   Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer.

   The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts
   officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 187 years,
   beginning in 1038. Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis
   Khan executed the emperor and his family. By this time, his advancing
   age had led Genghis Khan to make preparations for his death.

Mongol Empire

   Mongol Empire
   Enlarge
   Mongol Empire

Politics and economics

   The Mongol Empire was governed by civilian and military code, called
   the Yassa code created by Genghis Khan.

   Among nomads, the Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of
   ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an
   approach grounded in meritocracy. The exception was the role of Genghis
   Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically
   and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many
   of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in
   military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, and others and
   included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the
   Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan.
   Drawing of Marco Polo at the court of Genghis' grandson Kublai Khan,
   c.1280.
   Enlarge
   Drawing of Marco Polo at the court of Genghis' grandson Kublai Khan,
   c.1280.

   There were tax exemptions for religious figures and so to some extent
   teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance
   to a large degree because it was generally indifferent to belief. The
   exception was when religious groups challenged the state. For example
   Ismaili Muslims that resisted the Mongols were exterminated.

   It is claimed that the Mongol Empire linked together the previously
   fractured Silk Road states under one system and became somewhat open to
   trade and cultural exchange. However, the Mongol conquests did lead to
   a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia that
   resisted invasion. Taxes were also heavy and conquered people were used
   as forced labour in those regions.

   Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life,
   Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa
   that would have established the legal equality of all individuals,
   including women . However, there is no contemporary evidence of this,
   or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples
   such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol
   Empire and in family, for example Torogene Khatun was briefly in charge
   of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern
   scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and
   communication as the Pax Mongolica ( Mongol Peace).

   Genghis Khan realized that he needed people who could govern cities and
   states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators
   could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and
   thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan
   invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been
   captured by Mongol army after the Jin Dynasty were defeated. Jin had
   captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a
   lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's
   forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin Dynasty
   honestly and so did he; he did not consider his own father his enemy,
   so the question of revenge did not apply. Genghis Khan was very
   impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol
   Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.

Military

   Genghis Khan and his generals practiced advanced military disciplines,
   such as mobility, psychological warfare, intelligence, military
   autonomy, and tactics.

   Genghis Khan and others are widely cited as producing a highly
   efficient army with remarkable discipline, organization, toughness,
   dedication, loyalty and military intelligence, in comparison to their
   enemies. The Mongol armies were one of the most feared and militarily
   ruthless forces ever to take the field of battle. Operating in massive
   sweeps, extending over dozens of miles, the Mongol army combined shock,
   mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the modern age.
   Originally consisting of purely cavalry units, the Mongols learned and
   absorbed the war technology and strategies of the empires and kingdoms
   they invaded and conquered. Most notable contribution in their military
   campaigns was the absorption of Chinese siege warfare and engineers;
   prior to this the Mongols lacked skills to take walled cities. The
   Mongol cavalry was more used to the open-space steppe warfare. With the
   introduction of siege warfare and fighting ships from both China and
   Korea, the Mongol capability was enhanced greatly.

Organization

   Reflex bow, the design similar to the Mongol bow, main and basic weapon
   used by Mongol armies
   Enlarge
   Reflex bow, the design similar to the Mongol bow, main and basic weapon
   used by Mongol armies

   In contrast to most of their enemies, almost all Mongols were nomads
   and had experience in riding and managing horses from a very young age.
   Mongol military structure was based largely on meritocracy. For example
   if a Khan was not fit for military command, the troops would be led by
   someone with more experience and victories an example being Subedei.
   Genghis Khan refused to divide his troops into different units based on
   ethnicity, instead he mixed tribesmen from conquered groups, like the
   Tatars and Keraits, which fostered a sense of unity and loyalty by
   reducing the effects of the old tribal affiliations and preventing any
   one unit from developing a separate ethnic or national character.
   Discipline was strictly maintained, with severe punishments provided
   for even small infractions. The armies were also divided based on the
   traditional Inner Asian decimal system in units of 10 ( arban), 100 (
   jaghun), 1,000 ( mingghan), and 10,000 ( tumen) men. They were
   extremely ruthless when in battle based on others' standards (see
   below). These units of 10s were like a family or close-knit group,
   every unit of 10 had a leader who reported up to the next level, and
   men were not allowed to transfer from one unit to another . Discipline
   was severe - if one member of an arban disappeared, all the arban were
   executed; if the whole arban disappeared, the entire jaghun would be
   executed. Leaders of the tumens were mostly Mongol nobility, or those
   who had been granted noble status, while the leader of the 100,000
   (leader of 10 tumens) was the Khagan himself.

   Mongols in general were very used to living through cold, harsh
   winters, in fact often preferring to campaign in winter in order to
   facilitate river crossings, and they were used to travelling great
   distances in very short time without difficulty, since their nomadic
   lifestyle already involved bi-annual migrations from summer to winter
   pastures. For instance, the journey from Mongolia to the Caspian sea
   was considered a hundred days' ride for the army.

   Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals, and granted
   them a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions. Muqali, a
   trusted general, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin
   Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai
   and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucausus and
   Kievan Rus, an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own
   initiative. The Mongol military also was successful in siege warfare,
   cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers,
   taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army , and
   adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they
   conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines
   and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Also one
   of the standard tactics of Mongol military was the commonly practiced
   feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy
   groups away from larger group and defended position for ambush and
   counterattack.
   Renactment of Mongol military movement.
   Enlarge
   Renactment of Mongol military movement.

   Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan
   was the communications and supply route or Yam, adapted from previous
   Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in
   order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official
   communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over
   the empire.

Division of the Empire into Khanates

   Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons
   Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before
   Genghis Khan's meant that his lands were instead split between his
   sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories:
   their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially,
   Ögedei.
   Modern day location of capital Kharakhorum
   Enlarge
   Modern day location of capital Kharakhorum

   Following are the Khanates in the way in which Genghis Khan assigned
   after his death:
     * Empire of the Great Khan - Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of
       Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the
       Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan.
     * Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum) - Tolui
       Khan, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the
       Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.
     * Chagatai Khanate - Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son, was
       given Central Asia and northern Iran.
     * Blue Horde - Batu Khan, and White Horde - Orda Khan, both were
       later combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or Khanate of the Golden
       Horde, under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had
       received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi
       died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up
       between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and
       later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being
       summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.

   In 1256, during the rule of Ögedei, Hulagu Khan, son of Tolui, was
   charged with the conquest of the Muslim nations to the southwest of the
   empire. These included modern day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan,
   Pakistan, and the new khanate was named the Il-Khanate. Since, after
   Tolui's death and the accession of his descendants to the office of
   Great Khan, his ulus were merged with the Yuan Dynasty, the Il-Khanate
   is considered, along with the Yuan Dynasty, Chagatai Khanate, and the
   Golden Horde, to be one of the four divisions of the Mongol Empire.

After Genghis Khan

   Next Khagan, Ögedei Khan, son of Genghis Khan
   Enlarge
   Next Khagan, Ögedei Khan, son of Genghis Khan

   Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer all of the
   areas of Mongol Empire. At the time of his death, the Mongol Empire
   stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan. The empire's
   expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in
   1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion
   reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xi
   Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with
   the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last
   until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols gaining control of
   all of China.

   In the late 1230s, the Mongols under Batu Khan started the Mongol
   invasions of Europe and Russia, reducing most of their principalities
   to vassalage, and pressed on into Central Europe. In 1241 Mongols under
   Subutai and Batu Khan defeated the last Polish-German and Hungarian
   armies in two days that came in for defense at the Battle of Legnica
   and the Battle of Mohi that included the elite of European military
   order at the time, namely Teutonic Knights, Knights of the Hospital and
   Knights Templar.

   During the 1250s, Genghis's grandson Hulegu Khan, operating from the
   Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad as
   well as the cult of the Assassins. It was rumoured that cult of the
   Assassins had sent 400 men to kill the Khagan Mongke Khan. The Khagan
   made this pre-emptive strike at the heart of the Islamic kingdom to
   make sure that no such assassination would take place. Hulegu Khan, the
   commander in chief of this campaign, along with his entire army
   returned to the main Mongol capital Karakorum when he heard of Khagan
   Mongke Khan's death and left behind just two tumen of soldiers
   (20,000). A battle between a Mongol army and the Mamluks ensued in
   modern-day Palestine. Many in the Mamluk army were Turks who had fought
   the Mongols years before as free men but were defeated and sold via
   Italian merchants to the Sultan of Cairo. They shared their experiences
   and were better prepared for Mongol tactics. The Mongol army lost the
   Battle of Ayn Jalut near modern-day Nazareth in part because a majority
   of the Mongol army had returned to Mongolia but also because this war
   was fought in summer when the land was parched and the Mongol armies
   could not keep enough mounts fed in the absence of pastures. This was
   the first defeat of the Mongol Empire in which they did not return to
   seek battle again.

   Mongol armies under Kublai Khan attempted two unsuccessful invasions of
   Japan and three unsuccessful invasions of modern-day Vietnam.
   Khagans of the Mongol Empire [USEMAP:28801.png]

   <!- Note: one of the defeats of the Mongols was in the hands of
   Alauddin Khilji's general (Delhi Sultanate): "In 1299, a horde of
   200,000 Mongols entered India with the intention of conquest. His
   general Zafar Khan showed desperate valor in battle. The Mongols were
   defeated, but Khan did not survive." -->

Military destruction and casualties

   Drawing of Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258.
   Enlarge
   Drawing of Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258.

   There are very many differing views on the amount of destruction
   Genghis Khan and his armies caused and about Genghis Khan and the
   Mongols. The peoples who suffered the most during Genghis Khan's
   conquests, like the Persians and the Han Chinese, usually stress the
   negative aspects of the Mongol conquests and some modern scholars argue
   that their historians exaggerate the numbers of deaths and the extent
   of material destruction; however, such historians produce virtually all
   the documents available to modern scholars, making it difficult to
   establish a firm basis for any alternative view.

Casualties

   Invasion of Japan against samurai Suenaga using arrows and bombs, circa
   1293.
   Enlarge
   Invasion of Japan against samurai Suenaga using arrows and bombs, circa
   1293.

   In military strategy, Genghis Khan generally preferred to offer
   opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight and become
   vassals by sending tribute, accepting residents, contributing troops
   and supply. He guaranteed them protection only if they abided by the
   rules set forth, but his and his successor leaders' policy was widely
   written in historical documents as causing mass destruction, terror and
   deaths if they encountered a resistance. For example David Nicole
   states in The Mongol Warlords, "terror and mass extermination of anyone
   opposing them was a well tested Mongol tactic." In such cases the
   Mongol leaders would not give an alternative choice but ordered massive
   collective slaughter of the population of resisting cities and
   destruction of their property. Only the skilled engineers and artists
   were spared from death and maintained as slaves if they agreed to
   surrender. Documents written during or just after Genghis Khan's reign
   say that after a conquest, the Mongol soldiers looted, pillaged, and
   raped while the Khan got the first pick of the beautiful women. Some
   troops who submitted were incorporated into the Mongol system in order
   to expand their manpower; this also allowed the Mongols to absorb new
   technology, manpower, knowledge and skill for use in military campaigns
   against other possible opponents. These techniques were sometimes used
   to spread terror and warning to others (see above).

   There also were instances of mass slaughter even where there was no
   resistance, especially in Northern China where the vast majority of the
   population had a long history of accepting nomadic rulers. Many ancient
   sources described Genghis Khan's conquests as wholesale destruction on
   an unprecedented scale in their certain geographical regions, and
   therefore probably causing great changes in the demographics of Asia.
   For example, over much of Central Asia speakers of Iranian languages
   were replaced by speakers of Turkic languages. According to the works
   of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed more than 70,000
   people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China reportedly
   suffered a drastic decline in population during 13th and 14th
   centuries. Before the Mongol invasion, unified China reportedly had
   approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed
   in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. Whether
   these deaths are directly attributable to Genghis Khan and his forces
   or by other causes is unclear and speculative.

Property and culture

   His campaigns in Northern China, Central Asia and the Middle East
   caused massive property destruction for those who resisted his invasion
   according to the regions' historians; however, there are no exact
   factual numbers available at this time. For example, the cities of
   Herat, Nishapur, and Samarkand suffered serious devastation by the
   armies of Genghis Khan. There is a noticeable lack of Chinese
   literature that has survived from the Jin Dynasty, due to the Mongol
   conquests.

Death and burial

   Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death
   Enlarge
   Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death

   On August 18, 1227, during his last campaign with the Western Xia
   Empire of the Tanguts, Genghis Khan died. The reason for his death is
   uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and
   physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his
   opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by
   the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to
   avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a knife
   hidden inside her and that he never recovered.

   Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his
   body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in
   Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the
   Onon River. According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and
   anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The
   Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. On
   October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and
   that may make it possible to find his burial site. Folklore says that a
   river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (The
   same manner of burial of Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk.) Other tales
   state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which
   trees were then planted and the permafrost also did its bit in hiding
   the burial site. The burial site remains undiscovered.

   Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were
   given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest
   son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of
   the elite Mongolian cavalry. This was done because by tradition, the
   youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ogedei
   and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4000 men each. His mother
   and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each.

Genghis Khan's practices

Simplicity

   It is not entirely clear what Genghis Khan's personality was truly
   like, as with any historical person without an autobiography, but his
   personality and character were moulded by the many hardships he faced
   when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis Khan
   fully embraced the Mongol people's nomadic way of life according to his
   quotations, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he
   aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of
   numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the
   possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a
   sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his
   later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa, and to refrain
   from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure. He was known to
   share his wealth with his people and awarded subjects handsomely who
   participated in campaigns in the book The Secret History of the
   Mongols.

Honesty and loyalty

   Genghis Khan seemed to value honesty and loyalty to himself highly from
   his subjects. Genghis Khan put some trust in his generals, such as
   Muqali, Jebe and Subudei, and gave them free rein in battles. He
   allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on
   campaigns on their own very far from the Mongol Empire capital
   Karakorum. An example of Genghis Khan's perception of loyalty is
   written in The Secret History of the Mongols that one of his main
   military generals Jebe had been his enemy and shot his horse. When Jebe
   was captured, he said he shot his horse and that he would fight for him
   if he spared his life or would die if that's what he wished. Genghis
   Khan spared Jebe's life, Jebe betrayed his former commander, and he
   became one of the powerful, successful generals of Genghis Khan.

   Yet, accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series
   of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early
   allies such as Jamuqa (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes)
   and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Batu, and problems
   with the most important Shaman who was allegedly trying break him up
   with brother Qasar who was serving Genghis Khan loyally. Many modern
   scholars doubt that all of the conspiracies existed and suggest that
   Genghis Khan was inclined to paranoia.

Military strategy

   His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good
   intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as
   exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He
   seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that
   he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. The book Secret
   History makes it clear he was not physically courageous and even says
   he was afraid of dogs. Many legends claim that Genghis Khan always was
   in the front in battles, but these may not be historically accurate.

Spirituality

   Genghis Khan's religion is widely speculated to be Shamanism, which was
   very common among nomadic Mongol- Turkic tribes of Central Asia.
   Genghis Khan towards the later part of his life became interested in
   the ancient Buddhist and Tao religions from China. The Taoist monk
   Ch'ang Ch'un, who rejected invitations from Song and Jin leaders,
   travelled more than 5000 kilometres to meet Genghis Khan close to the
   Afghanistan border. The first question Genghis Khan asked him was if
   the monk had some secret medicine that could make him immortal. The
   monk's negative answer disheartened Genghis Khan, and he rapidly lost
   interest in the monk. He also passed a decree exempting all followers
   of Taoist religion from paying any taxes. Genghis Khan was by and large
   tolerant of the multiple religions and there is no cases of him or the
   Mongols engaging in religious war against people he encountered during
   the conquests as long as they were obedient. However, all of his
   campaigns caused wanton and deliberate destruction of places of worship
   if they resisted.

By others

   The chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani left a description of Genghis
   Khan, written when Genghis Khan was in his later years:

     [Genghis Khan was] a man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust
     in body, the hair on his face scanty and turned white, with cat's
     eyes, possessed of dedicated energy, discernment, genius, and
     understanding, awe-striking, a butcher, just, resolute, an
     overthrower of enemies, intrepid, sanguinary, and cruel.

By himself

   Perhaps a rare insight into Genghis Khan's perspective of himself was
   recorded in a letter to the Taoist monk Ch'ang Ch'un. The letter was
   presumably not written by Genghis Khan himself, as tradition states
   that he was illiterate, but rather by a Chinese person at a later point
   and recorded as his in the Chinese histories. A passage from the letter
   states:

     Heaven has abandoned China owing to its haughtiness and extravagant
     luxury. But I, living in the northern wilderness, have not
     inordinate passions. I hate luxury and exercise moderation. I have
     only one coat and one food. I eat the same food and am dressed in
     the same tatters as my humble herdsmen. I consider the people my
     children, and take an interest in talented men as if they were my
     brothers. We always agree in our principles, and we are always
     united by mutual affection. At military exercises I am always in
     front, and in time of battle am never behind. In the space of seven
     years I have succeeded in accomplishing a great work, and uniting
     the whole world in one empire. (Bretschneider)

Perceptions of Genghis Khan today

Positive perception of Genghis Khan

   Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent with histories
   written by many different people from various different geographical
   regions, but some historians are looking into positive aspects of
   Genghis Khan's conquests. Genghis Khan is sometimes credited with
   bringing the Silk Route under one cohesive political environment.
   Theoretically this allowed increased communication and trade between
   the West, Middle East and Asia by expanding the horizon of all three
   areas. In more recent times some historians point out that Genghis Khan
   instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule and was quite
   tolerant of many religions.

Genghis Khan as an icon in Mongolia

   Chinggis Khan portrait on Ulan Bator hillside, done for 2006 Naadam
   festival
   Enlarge
   Chinggis Khan portrait on Ulan Bator hillside, done for 2006 Naadam
   festival
   Mongolia today
   Enlarge
   Mongolia today

   Genghis Khan was a taboo topic and was officially and heavily
   suppressed by the Soviet backed communist government of Mongolia,
   People's Republic of Mongolia, and he was described as a bad person.
   However, after the fall of People's Republic of Mongolia and with onset
   of democratic Mongolia, the memory of Genghis Khan has catapulted to
   legendary status and became Mongolians' pride. Genghis Khan is now
   regarded by many modern Mongolian observers and by general public of
   Mongolia as one of Mongolia's greatest, legendary and cherished
   leaders. He was to a large extent responsible for the emergence of
   Mongolia as a political and ethnic identity. There is also a chasm in
   the perception of his brutality - Mongolians often feel that the
   historical record, written for the most part by non-Mongolian
   observers, is unfairly biased against Genghis Khan and exaggerates his
   barbarism and butchery while underplaying his positive role, for
   example in founding the Mongol nation. He reinforced many Mongol
   traditions and provided stability and unity for the Mongol nation at a
   time of great uncertainty as a result of both internal factors and
   outside influences. He also brought in cultural change and helped
   create a writing system for the Mongolian language based on existing
   Uyghur script.

   In the early 1990s, when Mongolia repudiated communism and withdrew
   from the Russian bloc, Genghis Khan became a symbol of the free
   nation's identity. It's not uncommon for Mongolians to refer to
   Mongolia and themselves as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia," "Genghis Khan's
   children" and "father of the Mongols." Mongolians have given his name
   to many products, streets, buildings, and other places. For example his
   face is on the largest denominations of ₮ 500, ₮ 1000, ₮ 5000 and ₮
   10,000 Mongolian tugrug, the official currency of Mongolia. Mongolia's
   main international airport in the capital Ulaanbaatar, for example, is
   known as Chinggis Khaan International Airport and he is viewed with
   great respect by virtually all Mongolians and Mongol-related ethnic
   groups, such as Buryats and Evenkhei, while the destructions, deaths
   and conquests that occurred on other people are not lauded nor bluntly
   ignored by the general public of Mongolia. He is talked about with
   great pride and reverence by Mongolians, because of his strong presence
   and "Mongol" identity that he helped shape that lasts until today .
   Mongolia created a statue of Genghis Khan, his sons and main generals
   in main plaza of capital Ulaanbaatar in commemoration of the 800th
   anniversary of founding the Mongol Nation in 1206 . His name is often
   mentioned in modern day by historians, politicians and by the general
   public that supports unified, stable and powerful Mongolia as the
   representation of unified "Mongol" people and country . The Mongolian
   parliament has gone to try to preserve and regulate the usage of the
   name "Genghis Khan" so that it remains symbolic and powerful
   representation of Mongolia .

In China

   The People's Republic of China considers Genghis Khan to be a Chinese
   national hero. There are by far more ethnic Mongols living in the PRC
   than anywhere else, including the nation state Mongolia. This is the
   basis of the PRC's claim on Genghis Khan’s heritage. However,
   historians, especially those in the West, see mixed feelings towards
   Genghis Khan's legacy. Although his successors completely conquered or
   reunified China (and in the course became Chinese themselves) with
   military force, there has also been much artwork and literature
   praising him as a great military leader and political genius. Genghis
   Khan himself was technically not ethnic Han, but he and mainly his
   successors saw themselves as legitimate Chinese emperors by
   establishing the Yuan Dynasty. He was also on official record as the
   founder or Taizu 太祖 of Yuan. Like other non-Han dynasties, they were
   assimilated by the mainstream Sino dynastic political culture, and left
   a significant, lasting, but debatable, imprint on Chinese political and
   social structures for subsequent generations.

Recognitions in publications

   Genghis Khan is recognized in number of large and popular publications
   and by other authors, which include the following:
     * Genghis Khan is ranked #29 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most
       influential people in history.
     * An article that appeared in the Washington Post on December 31,
       1995 selected Genghis Khan as "Man of the Millennium".
     * Genghis Khan was nominated for the "Top 10 Cultural Legends of the
       Millennium" in 1998 by Dr G. Ab Arwel, voted by the five Judges,
       Prof. D Owain, Mr G Parry OBE, Dr. C Campbell of Oxford University,
       and Mr S Evans and Sir B. Parry of the International Museum of
       Culture, Luxembourg.
     * National Geographic's 50 Most Important Political Leaders of All
       Time.

Negative perception of Genghis Khan

   In much of modern-day Turkey, Genghis Khan is looked on as a great
   military leader and even many male children are named after him with
   pride. In contrast, in Iraq and Iran, he is looked on as a destructive
   and genocidal warlord who inflicted enormous damage and destruction .
   Similarly, in Afghanistan he is not looked with favour though some are
   ambivalent. It is believed that the Hazara of Afghanistan are
   descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed therein. Nevertheless,
   the invasions of Baghdad and Samarkand caused mass murders, for
   example, and much of southern Khuzestan was completely destroyed. His
   descendant Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Iran's northern part. Among
   the Iranian peoples he is regarded as one of the most despised
   conquerors of Iran, along with Alexander and Tamerlane . In much of
   Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan, his descendants and
   the Mongols and/or Tartars are generally described as causing
   considerable damage and destruction. Presently Genghis Khan, his
   descendants, his generals and in general the Mongols are remembered for
   their ferocious military, toughness, ruthless and destructive conquests
   in much of the world in history books.

Claimed descendants of Genghis Khan

   Zerjal et al [2003] identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about
   8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the men in the
   world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the
   lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia
   about 1,000 years ago. Such a spread would be too rapid to have
   occurred by genetic drift, and must therefore be the result of natural
   selection. The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely
   male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through
   social selection.

   In addition to the Khanates and other descendants, the Mughal emperor
   Babur's mother was a descendant and also Timur, the 14th century
   military leader claimed descent from Genghis Khan.

Name and title

   There are many theories for the origins of Temüjin's title; this
   uncertainty is fueled by the fact that later members of the Mongol
   Empire associated the name with the Mongol word for strength, ching,
   though this does not fit the etymology. One theory about the etymology
   suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and
   Turkish word tenggiz, meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading".
   Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggiz by the Mongols. However, it
   seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggiz they could have
   said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese:
   正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would
   have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis",
   which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely
   that contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like
   "Chinggis". Chingis Khan is the spelling used by the modern Republic of
   Mongolia. See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further
   reading.

   According to legend, Temüjin was named after one of the more powerful
   chiefs of a rival tribe which his father, Yesükhei, had recently
   defeated. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the Mongolian
   word temur, meaning iron. This name would imply skill as a blacksmith,
   and like any nomad of the time he was familiar, at least partially,
   with the working of iron for horse-shoeing and weaponry.

   More likely, as no evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan
   had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name
   indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The
   latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's
   siblings, Temulin and Temuge, which are derived from the same root
   word.

Short timeline

     * c. 1155-1167 - Temüjin born in Hentiy, Mongolia.
     * c. 1171 - Temüjin's father Yesükhei poisoned by the Tatars, leaving
       him and his family destitute
     * c. 1184 - Temüjin's wife Borte kidnapped by Merkits; calls on blood
       brother Jamuqa and Wang Khan (Ong Khan) for aid, and they rescued
       her.
     * c. 1185 - First son Jochi born, leading to doubt about his
       paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born
       shortley after Borte's rescue from the Merkits.
     * 1190' - Temüjin unites the Mongol tribes, becomes leader, and
       devises code of law Yassa.
     * 1201 - Wins victory over Jamuqa's Jadarans.
     * 1202 - Adopted as Ong Khan's heir after successful campaigns
       against Tatars.
     * 1203 - Wins victory over Ong Khan's Keraits. Ong Khan himself is
       killed by accident.
     * 1204 - Wins victory over Naimans (all these confederations are
       united and become the Mongols).
     * 1206 - Jamuqa is killed. Temüjin given the title Genghis Khan by
       his followers in Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
     * 1207-1210 - Genghis leads operations against the Western Xia, which
       comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western
       Xia ruler submits to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uyghurs
       also submit peacefully to the Mongols and became valued
       administrators throughout the empire.
     * 1211 - After Khuriltai, Genghis leads his armies against the Jin
       Dynasty that ruled northern China.
     * 1215 - Beijing falls, Genghis Khan turns to west and the
       Khara-Kitan Khanate.
     * 1219-1222 - Conquers Khwarezmid Empire.
     * 1226 - Starts the campaign against the Western Xia for forming
       coalition against the Mongols, being the second battle with the
       Western Xia.
     * 1227 - Genghis Khan dies leading fight against Western Xia. How he
       died is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off
       his horse in the battle, and contracted a deadly fever soon after.

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