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France in the American Revolutionary War

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: North American History

   Engraving based on the painting "Action Between the Serapis and
   Bonhomme Richard" by Richard Paton, published 1780.
   Enlarge
   Engraving based on the painting "Action Between the Serapis and
   Bonhomme Richard" by Richard Paton, published 1780.

   France, despite its financial difficulties, used the occasion of the
   American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) to seek revenge against Great
   Britain and the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

   Some historians argue that France intervened to seek revenge against
   Great Britain and the 1763 Treaty of Paris. However Dull, in 1975,
   argued that France intervened because of dispassionate calculation, not
   because of Anglophobia or a desire to avenge the loss of Canada. French
   participation reflected the desperate French diplomatic position on the
   European continent. The war was a tragic failure for France: American
   independence failed to weaken Great Britain. The Battle of Saratoga
   provided only the occasion for French participation, a policy which had
   already been decided. The Spanish navy was vital to the maintenance of
   the military initiative by the allies. France was desperate for peace
   but did not attempt to betray the United States. The French government
   was overwhelmed by debt maintenance, but war led to the financial
   crisis "which provided the immediate occasion for the release of those
   forces which shattered the French political and social order."

   The French entered the war in 1778, and assisted in the victory of the
   Americans seeking independence from Britain (realized in the 1783
   Treaty of Paris). Its status as a great modern power was affirmed and
   its taste for revenge was satisfied, but the war was detrimental to the
   country’s finances.

   Even though French cities avoided any direct destruction, victory in a
   war against Britain with battles like the decisive siege of Yorktown in
   1781 had a large military cost (one billion livre tournois) which
   severely degraded fragile finances and increased the deficit in France.
   Even worse, France’s hope to become the first commercial partner of the
   newly-established United States was not realized, and Britain
   immediately became the United States’ main trade partner. Pre-war trade
   patterns were largely kept between Britain and the US, with most
   American trade remaining within the British Empire. Recognition of
   France's participation in the Revolution was mainly manifested in the
   United States' appreciation of French military heroes like the Comte de
   Rochambeau and the Marquis de Lafayette. France’s hope to regain its
   territories in the United States ( Nouvelle-France) was also lost.

   The weakening of the French state, the example of the American
   Revolution, and the rising visibility of viable alternatives to the
   absolute monarchy were all factors that helped influence the French
   Revolution.

French diplomatic situation

   Louis XVI appointed Vergennes to foreign policy office. Vergennes
   shared with Choiseul the desire of revenge on England after the Seven
   Years' War. He first led a careful policy in Europe, maintaining the
   status quo between Prussia and Austria in the East, especially during
   the War of the Bavarian Succession, which he did not take part in.
   Meanwhile, he gave France a military fleet to match the British navy,
   and kept an eye on tensions in America.

   In 1770, the Austro-French alliance enacted by Louis XV in 1756 was
   confirmed by the weddings of the future Louis XVI with Marie-Antoinette
   of Austria, while the alliance of the familial pact between France and
   Spain led to domination of continental Europe. The marriage of
   Marie-Antoinette to Louis XVI ostensibly marked the end of the age-old
   Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry.

The French Will

   The French elite had dreamed of revenge since the 1763 Treaty of Paris,
   which was supported more than happily by exiled Scottish Jacobites in
   the colonies. The treaty, in view of the conditions of defeat, was
   moderate in its demands. France kept its most lucrative possessions
   (such as the sugar-producing colony of Saint Dominique). Even though
   the French-Spanish-Austrian alliance may have eventually defeated the
   British Royal Navy, the financial cost of the war was overwhelming, and
   all sought to end the conflict as quickly as possible. The Treaty of
   Paris was therefore accepted, but there remained in France a powerful
   aspiration to exact revenge on Britain and finish this unconcluded war.

   Choiseul, even before 1763, had already begun the modernization of the
   navy, envisaging a new kind of war where the striking speed, the number
   of ships, and attacks on the enemy's merchant fleet would become more
   important. France thus "corsairized" its fleet by adding fast and
   maneuverable small ships. France also modernized the equipment and the
   training given to the military while increasing its numbers
   significantly (to 300,000 men). Louis XVI achieved this modernization
   by providing the necessary amounts of money. The fleet, at a minimum in
   1762, increased in numbers to 67 vessels and 37 frigates.

American origins of the conflict

   After the end of the Seven Years' War, the economic situation of Great
   Britain had driven her to exercise stricter and stricter controls on
   the commerce of her colonies: duties were raised, commerce was
   exclusive, and the colonies were asked to contribute to the upkeep of
   the British troops stationed in the colonies through a special tax. The
   colonists evoked a law to the effect that "No population subject to the
   British Crown may be taxed without the agreement of its representative
   assembly". However, the tax was imposed, giving rise to a series of
   frictions.

   The best-known episode was the Boston Tea Party in 1773 in which the
   colonists refused to accept the British government-given monopoly of
   the failing British East India Company over tea sold in America,
   throwing large quantities of tea overboard into Boston Harbour. Great
   Britain decided to close the port in reprisal, and opinion rapidly
   hardened in favour of the Bostonians. A congress of the colonists was
   organized, and armed militias and new institutions were established. On
   the Fourth of July 1776 the United States declared their union and
   independence from Great Britain, but US still had to enforce it.

   Up against the British power, the young United States lacked arms and
   allies, and so turned naturally towards France. After the prodding of
   Benjamin Franklin, France, which had no direct interest in the
   conflict, nevertheless engaged herself first in the insurgent war, then
   in open war from February 5th 1778, which placed her almost alone
   against the Royal Navy.

Reception in French opinion

   Public opinion in France was in favour of open war, but the governing
   body was reluctant due to the consequences and cost of such a war.

   Following the Declaration of Independence of the thirteen colonies, the
   American insurrection had been well received in France, both by the
   population and the enlightened elites. The Revolution was perceived as
   the incarnation of the Enlightenment Spirit against the "english
   tyranny". Benjamin Franklin, dispatched to France in December of 1776
   to rally her support, was welcomed with enthusiasm, and numerous
   Frenchmen embarked for the Americas to help the insurrection, motivated
   by the prospect or animated by the sincere ideal of liberty and
   modernity, like Pierre Charles L'Enfant, and La Fayette, who enlisted
   in 1776.

   The official reaction was more quiet . Louis XVI wanted to help the
   colonies. But, because of the financial situation in France, he just
   provided clandestine aid through Beaumarchais. Vergennes (in office
   from 1774 to 1781) was in favour of open participation by France and
   suggested the possibility of commercial and diplomatic gains: The
   situation was under French analysis, and they were looking for allies
   (Spain through their Family Pact, and Austria), or at least ensuring
   their neutrality (Austria, Holland, Prussia).

   Leaders in charge of diplomacy, finances, the military, and the economy
   were rather reluctant. The French Navy was described as still
   insufficient and unprepared for such a war, the economy would have been
   greatly impacted, and the condition of the financial deficit of the
   French State was noted by Turgot and later Necker. Diplomats were less
   enthusiastic as Vergennes and Louis XVI, underlining the unique and
   isolated position of France in Europe on the matter . The balance of
   peace and economic prosperity of the times opposed the spirit of
   revenge and the liberal ideal.

Debate over aiding the colonies or declaring open war

   Vergennes and Louis XVI were partisans of entering the war, however, in
   light of the opposition, Louis XVI compromised on clandestine material
   aid through Beaumarchais.

   Thus, through the secret sale of weapons begun in 1776, France was
   privately involved in the war. Secretly approached by Louis XVI and
   Vergennes, Beaumarchais was given authorization to sell gun powder and
   ammunition for close to a million pounds under the veil of the
   Portuguese company Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie. The aide given by
   France would ultimately contribute to George Washington's survival
   against the British onslaught. France accommodated American frigates
   that committed piracy against British merchant ships, provided economic
   aid, either as donations or loans, and also offered technical
   assistance, granting some of its military strategists "vacations", so
   they could assist American troops.

   Deane, appointed by the insurrectionists, and helped by French
   animosity towards Great Britain, obtained unofficial aid. However, the
   goal was the total involvement of France in the war. A new delegation
   composed of Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, was appointed to lobby for
   the involvement of European nations. They claimed that an alliance of
   the 13 Colonies, France, and Spain would assure a rapid defeat of the
   British, but Vergennes, despite his own desire in the matter, refused.
   Franklin might even have proposed to aid France in reclaiming New
   France. On the 23rd of July, 1777, Vergennes demanded that either total
   assistance or abandonment of the colonies be chosen.

   Lastly, when the international climate at the end of 1777 was tense,
   Austria had requested the support of France in the War of Bavarian
   Succession against Prussia. France had rejected, causing the relation
   with Austria to turn sour. In these conditions, asking Austria to give
   assistance to France in a war against the British was impossible.
   Attempts to rally Spain also failed: Spain had nothing to gain and the
   revolutionary spirit was even threatening the legitimacy of the Spanish
   Crown in its own Latin America colonies.

French Involvement

   After France entered on February 6th, 1778 in the American
   Revolutionary War, the British naval force - master of the seas - and
   French fleet confronted each other from the beginning. First these
   navies quarreled head-on, in the English Channel and then in the
   entirety of the Atlantic Ocean, in a war of escorts. The ultimate
   outcome would be decided by the naval battle of the Chesapeake and the
   battle of Yorktown.

   The British had taken Philadelphia, but American victory at the Battle
   of Saratoga brought back hope to the Patriots and enthusiasm in France.
   The army of Burgoyne (Great Britain) was defeated and France became
   aware that the 13 colonies could be victorious and thus decided to
   provide official aid to colonies. The Spanish ally was more skeptical.
   Vergennes and Louis XVI were considering the proposition of an American
   alliance through the American diplomats Benjamin Franklin, Deane, and
   Arthur Lee with increasing interest. The alliance between Great Britain
   and France, forged in 1763, plunged into a diplomatic crisis. The war
   was benefiting from popular support, La Fayette was gaining notoriety,
   and the avenging spirit was ready to express itself.

   On the 6th of February, 1778, Vergennes and Louis XVI decided to sign
   with Benjamin Franklin a treaty of friendship and official alliance
   with the 13 colonies. France recognized the independent status of the
   colonies, both parties agreed that peace would not be signed
   separately, and the colonies engaged themselves in protecting French
   possessions in America. Battles were initiated in America in the
   Antilles.

   With the entry of France into the war, Great Britain attempted to keep
   the French navy in its waters. The naval battle of Ouessant in the
   Channel was indecisive: The two forces eventually withdrew (British
   admiral Keppel). The landing of 40,000 men in the nearby English
   islands was considered, but abandoned because of logistic issues. On
   the continent, France was protected through its alliance with Austria,
   which, even if it did not take part in the American Revolutionary War,
   affirmed its diplomatic support of France.

   Other nations in Europe, the " Neutral league," refused to take part.
   Then, after seeing France holding its own against the Royal Navy,
   Holland decided to side with France in 1780. The Spanish also offered
   their support in 1779. Great Britain was in a difficult situation.

   The French intervention was initially maritime in nature and indecisive
   but was turned absolute when in 1780, 6,000 soldiers of Rochambeau were
   sent to America. In 1779, 6,000 French had already faced 3,000 British
   in the Battle of Savannah, but the French attack was too precipitated
   and badly prepared, which led to its eventual failure. The battle of
   the Chesapeake (1781) caused a part of the British fleet to flee,
   destroyed the remainder, and encircled Cornwallis in Yorktown, where he
   hopelessly awaited the promised British reinforcements. Cornwallis was
   trapped between American and French forces on land and the French fleet
   on the sea. The French alliance was crucial in the decisive victory of
   the Patriots at Yorktown (October 17, 1781), which could not have been
   achieved if not for the French Navy under Admiral François Joseph Paul
   de Grasse. After useless counters, Cornwallis formally surrendered on
   (October 19, 1781). The major fighting was now over and only some
   skirmishes were left. Great Britain, however, would not formally end
   the war until 1783.

   Over important naval battles between the French and the British were
   spaced out around the globe. In the ensuing battles, the British and
   French confronted one another for the domination of the Antilles, which
   France lost to Britain after the 1782 battle of the Saints. The
   combined Spanish and French forces were able to defeat the British and
   successfully capture Minorca in February of 1782. In India, the Kingdom
   of Mysore, allied with the French, were able to successfully overpower
   the British. The French regained control of Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon
   from the British in 1783. However, the Great Siege of Gibraltar was a
   failed attempt by the French and Spanish to regain the Gibraltar
   peninsula from the British.

   Because of the presence of decisive battles on American soil, the
   French were able to have a better base to negotiate on in Paris.

Peace and consequences

   Starting with the Battle of Yorktown, Benjamin Franklin never informed
   France of the secret negotiations that took place directly between
   London and Washington. Great Britain relinquished her rule over the
   Thirteen Colonies and granted them all the land south of the Great
   Lakes and east of the Mississippi River. However, since France was not
   included in the American-British peace discussions, the alliance
   between France and the colonies was broken. Thus the influence of
   France and Spain in future negotiations was limited.
   Ratification of the treaty of Paris, 1783. The British delegation
   refused to pose for the picture
   Enlarge
   Ratification of the treaty of Paris, 1783. The British delegation
   refused to pose for the picture

   A limited victory was declared in September 1783, in the Treaty of
   Paris. France gained (or gained back) territories in America, Africa,
   and India. Losses in the Treaty of Paris of 1763 and in the Traity of
   Utrecht (1713) were in part gained back: Tobago, Saint Lucia, the
   Senegal River area, Dunkerque, as well as increased fishing rights in
   Terra Nova. Spain regained Florida and Minorca, but Gibraltar remained
   in the hands of the British.

   Because the French involvement in the war was distant and naval in
   nature, over a billion livres tournoiss were spent by the French
   government to support the war effort. The finances of the French state
   were in disastrous shape and financial setbacks in particular were
   contributed by Jacques Necker, who, rather than raise taxes, used loans
   to pay off debts. State secretary in Finances Calonnes attempted to fix
   the deficit problem by asking for the taxation of the property of
   nobles and clergy but was dismissed and exiled for his ideas. The
   French instability further weakened the reforms that were essential in
   the re-establishment of stable French finances. Trade also severely
   declined during the war, but was revived by 1783.

   The war was especially important for the prestige and pride of France,
   who was reinstated in the role of European arbiter. However, France did
   not become the main commerce partner with the United States of America,
   despite particularly expensive military spending. French troops had to
   be transported over great distances, which cost about 1 billion livres
   tournoiss, and further added to France's debt of a little less than
   3,315 billion.

   Another result of French involvement was the newly acquired pride in
   the enlightenment, finally set in motion with the Declaration of
   Independence in 1776, through the American victory in 1783, and
   accented by the constitution in 1787: liberal elites were satisfied.
   But there were also some major consequences: the European conservatives
   had become nervous, and the nobility began to take measures in order to
   secure their positions. On May 22nd, 1781, the Decree of Ségur closed
   the military post offices of the upper rank to the common persons and
   reserved those ranks exclusively for the nobility. The blight of the
   bourgeoisies had begun.

French Bibliographie

     * Susan Mary Alsop, Les Américains à la Cour de Louis XVI, 1982.
       Traduction française : Jean-Claude Lattès (1983).
     * Mourre, Dictionnaire encyclopédique d'histoire, Paris, Éditions
       Bordas, 1987, en 8 vol.
     * Le petit Mourre : dictionnaire de l'histoire, Paris, Éditions
       Bordas, 1990.
     * Henri Haeau, Complot pour l'Amérique 1775-1779, Paris, Éditions
       Robert Laffont, 1990, ISBN 2-221-05364-8
     * J.-M. Bizière et J. Sole, Dictionnaire des Biographies, Paris,
       Éditions du Seuil, 1993.
     * Olivier Chaline, La France au XVIIIe siècle (1715-1787), Paris,
       Éditions Belin, 1996.
     * Joël Cornette, Absolutisme et Lumière 1652-1783, collection Carré
       Histoire, Paris, Éditions Hachette, 2000. ISBN 2-01-145422-0
     * Egret, Jean. Necker, Ministre de Louis XVI, 1776-1790; Honoré
       Champion; Paris, 1975.
     * André Zysberg, La Monarchie des Lumières (1775-1786), Paris,
       Éditions du Seuil, 2002.

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