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Fossil fuel

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Environment; General
Physics

   Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio
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   Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio

   Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas,
   formed from the remains of dead plants and animals. The theory that
   hydrocarbons were formed from these remains was first introduced by
   Mikhail Lomonosov in 1757. In common dialogue, the term fossil fuel
   also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not
   derived from animal or plant sources. These are sometimes known instead
   as mineral fuels. The utilization of fossil fuels has enabled
   large-scale industrial development and largely supplanted water-driven
   mills, as well as the combustion of wood or peat for heat.

   Fossil fuel is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits
   of organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have
   been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by
   exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of
   millions of years.

   When generating electricity, energy from the combustion of fossil fuels
   is often used to power a turbine. Older generators often used steam
   generated by the burning of the fuel to turn the turbine, but in newer
   power plants the gases produced by burning of the fuel turn a gas
   turbine directly.

   With global modernization in the 20th and 21st centuries, the thirst
   for energy from fossil fuels, especially gasoline derived from oil, is
   one of the causes of major regional and global conflicts. A global
   movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore
   underway to help meet the increased global energy needs.

   The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the largest source of
   emissions of carbon dioxide, which is one of the greenhouse gases that
   allows radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. A small
   portion of hydrocarbon-based fuels are biofuels derived from
   atmospheric carbon dioxide, and thus do not increase the net amount of
   carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Levels and flows

   Levels of primary energy sources are the reserves in the ground. Flows
   are production. The most important part of primary energy sources are
   the carbon based fossil energy sources. Oil, coal, and gas stood for
   79.6% of primary energy production during 2002 (in million tonnes of
   oil equivalent (mtoe)) (34.9+23.5+21.2).

   Levels (reserves) ( EIA oil, gas, coal estimates, EIA oil, gas
   estimates)
     * Oil: 1,050,691 to 1,277,702 million barrels (167 to 203 km³)
       2003-2005
     * Gas: 6,040,208 - 6,805,830 billion cubic feet (171,040 to 192,720
       km³) 6,805.830*0.182= 1,239 BBOE 2003-2005
     * Coal: 1,081,279 million short tons (1,081,279*0.907186*4.879= 4,786
       BBOE) (2004)

   Flows (daily production) during 2002 (7.9 is a ratio to convert tonnes
   of oil equivalent to barrels of oil equivalent)
     * Oil: (10,230*0.349)*7.9/365= 77 MBD
     * Gas: (10,230*0.212)*7.9/365= 47 MBOED
     * Coal: (10,230*0.235)*7.9/365= 52 MBOED

   Years of production left in the ground with the most optimistic reserve
   estimates (Oil & Gas Journal, World Oil)
     * Oil: 1,277,702/77/365= 32 years
     * Gas: 1,239,000/47/365= 72 years
     * Coal: 4,786,000/52/365= 252 years

   Note that this calculation assumes that the product could be produced
   at a constant level for that number of years and that all of the
   reserves could be recovered. In reality, consumption of all three
   resources have been increasing. While this suggests that the resource
   will be used up more quickly, in reality, the production curve is much
   more akin to a bell curve. At some point in time, the production of
   each resource within an area, country, or globally will reach a maximum
   value, after which, the production will decline until it reaches a
   point where is no longer economically feasible or physically possible
   to produce. See Hubbert peak theory for detail on this decline curve
   with regard to petroleum.

   The above discussion emphasizes worldwide energy balance. It is also
   valuable to understand the ratio of reserves to annual consumption
   (R/C) by region or country. For example, energy policy of the United
   Kingdom recognizes that Europe's R/C value is 3.0, very low by world
   standards, and exposes that region to energy vulnerability, since the
   United Kingdom, by instance, relies on fossil fuels as its primary
   source.

Environmental effects

   In the United States, more than 90% of greenhouse gas emissions come
   from the combustion of fossil fuels. In addition other air pollutants,
   such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, VOCs, and heavy metals are
   produced.

   It is not as commonly known that radioactive materials, mainly uranium
   and thorium, are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000
   metric tons of thorium and 5,000 metric tons of uranium were released
   worldwide from burning coal. It is estimated that during 1982, US coal
   burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as
   the Three Mile Island incident.

   Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to limit these
   emissions, such as command-and-control (which mandates the amount of
   pollution or the technology used), economic incentives, or voluntary
   programs.

Fossil fuel subsidies

   In economic terms, pollution from fossil fuels is regarded as a
   negative externality and should be taxed. This 'internalizes' the cost
   of pollution and makes fossil fuels more expensive, thereby reducing
   their use and the amount of pollution associated with them. Although
   European nations do impose some pollution taxes, they also give
   billions of subsidies to the fossil fuel industry, offseting the taxes.

   although taxation may be one opinon on reducing their use its not
   conclusive by any measure.
     * Fossil Fuel Subsidies in Europe
     * US Fossil Fuel Subsidies
     * 2003 Congressional briefing on fossil fuel subsidies

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