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First Council of Nicaea

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   First Council of Nicaea
   Date 325
   Accepted by Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy,
   Assyrian Church of the East, Anglicanism, Lutheranism
   Previous council none considered ecumenical
   Next council First Council of Constantinople
   Convoked by Constantine I
   Presided by St. Hosius of Cordova and St. Alexander of Alexandria
   Attendance 250-318 (only five from Western Church)
   Topics of discussion Arianism, celebration of Passover ( Easter),
   Miletian schism, validity of baptism by heretics, lapsed Christians
   Documents and statements Original Nicene Creed and about 20 decrees
   Chronological list of Ecumenical councils

   The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicea in Bithynia (in present-day
   Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the
   first ecumenical conference of bishops of the Christian Church, and
   most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine.
   With the creation of the Nicene Creed, a precedent was established for
   subsequent 'general ( ecumenical) councils of Bishops' ( Synods) to
   create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy— the
   intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom —
   a momentous event in the history of the Church and subsequent history
   of Europe.

   The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements in the Church
   of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father;
   in particular, whether Jesus was of the same or merely of similar
   substance as God the Father. St. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius
   took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the
   term Arian controversy comes, took the second. The council decided
   against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250-318 attendees,
   all but 2 voted against Arius). Another result of the council was an
   agreement on the date of the Christian Passover (Pascha in Greek;
   Easter in modern English), the most important feast of the
   ecclesiastical calendar. The council decided in favour of celebrating
   Jesus on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the
   vernal equinox, independently of the Bible's Hebrew Calendar (see also
   Quartodecimanism), and authorized the Bishop of Alexandria (presumably
   using the Alexandrian calendar) to announce annually the exact date to
   his fellow bishops.

   The Council of Nicaea was historically significant because it was the
   first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly
   representing all of Christendom. "It was the first occasion for the
   development of technical Christology." Further, Constantine's role in
   the council was, viewed retrospectively, a clear precursor of future
   imperial countrol over the church.

Character and purpose

   St. Constantine summoned the bishops of the Christian Church to Nicaea
   to address divisions in the Church. (mosaic in Hagia Sophia,
   Constantinople, c. 1000)
   Enlarge
   St. Constantine summoned the bishops of the Christian Church to Nicaea
   to address divisions in the Church. (mosaic in Hagia Sophia,
   Constantinople, c. 1000)

   The First Council of Nicaea was convened by Constantine I upon the
   recommendations of a synod led by Hosius of Cordoba in the Eastertide
   of 325. This synod had been charged with investigation of the trouble
   brought about by the Arian controversy in the Greek-speaking east. To
   most bishops, the teachings of Arius were heretical and a danger to the
   salvation of souls. In the summer of 325, the bishops of all provinces
   were summoned to Nicaea (now known as İznik, in modern-day Turkey), a
   place easily accessible to the majority of them, particularly those of
   Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Thrace.

   Approximately 300 bishops attended, from every region of the Empire
   except Britain. This was the first general council in the history of
   the Church since the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem, which had
   established the conditions upon which Gentiles could join the Church.
   In the Council of Nicaea, “the Church had taken her first great step to
   define doctrine more precisely in response to a challenge from a
   heretical theology.” The resolutions in the council, being ecumenical,
   were intended for the whole Church.

Attendees

   Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about
   1000 in the east and 800 in the west), but only 250 to 320 bishops
   actually participated. Eusebius of Caesarea counted 250, Athanasius of
   Alexandria counted 318, and Eustathius of Antioch counted 270 (all
   three were present at the council). Later, Socrates Scholasticus
   recorded more than 300, and Evagrius, Hilarius, Jerome and Rufinus
   recorded 318.

   The participating bishops were given free travel to and from their
   episcopal sees to the council, as well as lodging. These bishops did
   not travel alone; each one had permission to bring with him two
   presbyters and three deacons; so the total number of attendees would
   have been above 1500. Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of
   accompanying priests, deacons and acolytes.

   A special prominence was also attached to this council because the
   persecution of Christians had just ended with the February 313 Edict of
   Milan by Emperors Constantine and Licinius.

   The Eastern bishops formed the great majority. Of these, the first rank
   was held by the three patriarchs: Alexander of Alexandria, Eustathius
   of Antioch, and Macarius of Jerusalem. Many of the assembled fathers —
   for instance, Paphnutius of Thebes, Potamon of Heraclea and Paul of
   Neocaesarea — had stood forth as witnesses of the faith and came to the
   council with the marks of persecution on their faces. Other remarkable
   attendees were Eusebius of Nicomedia, Eusebius of Caesarea, Nicholas of
   Myra, Aristakes of Armenia, Jacob of Nisibis, a former hermit and
   Spyridion of Trimythous, who even while a bishop made his living as a
   shepherd. From foreign places came a Persian bishop John, a Gothic
   bishop Theophilus and Stratophilus, bishop of Pitiunt in Egrisi
   (located at the border of modern-day Russia and Georgia outside of the
   Roman Empire).

   The Latin-speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: Marcus
   of Calabria from Italia, Cecilian of Carthage from Africa, Hosius of
   Córdoba from Hispania, Nicasius of Dijon from Gaul, and Domnus of
   Stridon from the province of the Danube. Pope Silvester I declined to
   attend, pleading infirmity, but he was represented by two priests.

   Athanasius of Alexandria, a young deacon and companion of Bishop
   Alexander of Alexandria, was among these assistants. Athanasius
   eventually spent most of his life battling against Arianism. Alexander
   of Constantinople, then a presbyter, was also present as representative
   of his aged bishop.

   "Resplendent in purple and gold, Constantine made a ceremonial entrance
   at the opening of the council, probably in early June, but respectfully
   seated the bishops ahead of himself." He was present as an observer,
   but he did not vote. Constantine organized the Council along the lines
   of the Roman Senate. "Ossius [Hosius] presided over its deliberations;
   he probably, and the two priests of Rome certainly, came as
   representatives of the Pope." “Eusebius of Nicomedia probably gave the
   welcoming address."

Agenda and procedure

   Icon depicting the First Council of Nicaea.
   Enlarge
   Icon depicting the First Council of Nicaea.

   The agenda of the synod were:
    1. The Arian question;
    2. The celebration of Passover;
    3. The Meletian schism;
    4. The Father and Son one in purpose or in person;
    5. The baptism of heretics;
    6. The status of the lapsed in the persecution under Licinius.

   The council was formally opened May 20, in the central structure of the
   imperial palace, with preliminary discussions on the Arian question. In
   these discussions, some dominant figures were Arius, with several
   adherents. “Some 22 of the bishops at the council, led by Eusebius of
   Nicomedia, came as supporters of Arius. But when some of the more
   shocking passages from his writings were read, they were almost
   universally seen as blasphemous.” Bishops Theognis of Nice and Maris of
   Chalcedon were among the initial supporters of Arius.

   Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the baptismal creed (symbol) of his
   own diocese at Caesarea in Palestine, as a form of reconciliation. The
   majority of the bishops agreed. For some time, scholars thought that
   the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius.
   Today, most scholars think that this Creed is derived from the
   baptismal creed of Jerusalem, as Hans Lietzmann proposed. Another
   possibility is the Apostle's Creed.

   In any case, as the council went on, the orthodox bishops won approval
   of every one of their proposals. After being in session for an entire
   month, the council promulgated on June 19 the original Nicene Creed.
   This profession of faith was adopted by all the bishops “but two from
   Libya who had been closely associated with Arius from the beginning.”
   No historical record of their dissent actually exists; the signatures
   of these bishops are simply absent from the creed.

Arian controversy

   St. Alexander of Alexandria held the first position of the Council of
   Nicaea.
   Enlarge
   St. Alexander of Alexandria held the first position of the Council of
   Nicaea.

   The Arian controversy was a Christological dispute that began in
   Alexandria between the followers of Arius (the Arians) and the
   followers of St. Alexander of Alexandria (now known as homoousians).
   Alexander and his followers believed that the Son was of the same
   substance as the Father, co-eternal with him. The Arians believed that
   they were different and that the Son, though he may be the most perfect
   of creations, was only a creation. A third group (now known as
   homoiousians) tried to make a compromise position, saying that the
   Father and the Son were of similar substance.

   Much of the debate hinged on the difference between being "born" or
   "created" and being "begotten". Arians saw these as the same; followers
   of Alexander did not. Indeed, the exact meaning of many of the words
   used in the debates at Nicaea were still unclear to speakers of other
   languages; Greek words like "essence" ( ousia), "substance" (
   hypostasis), "nature" (physis), "person" (prosopon) bore a variety of
   meanings drawn from pre-Christian philosophers, which could not but
   entail misunderstandings until they were cleared up. The word
   homoousia, in particular, was initially disliked by many bishops
   because of its associations with Gnostic heretics (who used it in their
   theology), and because it had been condemned at the 264-268 Synods of
   Antioch.

   Homoousians believed that to follow the Arian view destroyed the unity
   of the Godhead, and made the Son unequal to the Father, in
   contravention of the Scriptures ("The Father and I are one", John
   10:30). Arians, on the other hand, believed that since God the Father
   created the Son, he must have emanated from the Father, and thus be
   lesser than the Father, in that the Father is eternal, but the Son was
   created afterward and, thus, is not eternal. The Arians likewise
   appealed to Scripture, quoting verses such as John 14:28: "the Father
   is greater than I". Homoousians countered the Arians' argument, saying
   that the Father's fatherhood, like all of his attributes, is eternal.
   Thus, the Father was always a father, and that the Son, therefore,
   always existed with him.

   The Council declared that the Father and the Son are of the same
   substance and are co-eternal, basing the declaration in the claim that
   this was a formulation of traditional Christian belief handed down from
   the Apostles. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed.

The Nicene Creed

   Icon depicting the Holy Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea holding
   the Nicene Creed.
   Enlarge
   Icon depicting the Holy Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea holding
   the Nicene Creed.

   By and large, many creeds were acceptable to the members of the
   council. From his perspective, even Arius could cite such a creed.

   For Bishop Alexander and others, however, greater clarity was required.
   Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of
   Hosius of Cordova, were added.
    1. Jesus Christ is described as "God from God, Light from Light, true
       God from true God," confirming his divinity. When all light sources
       were natural, the essence of light was considered to be identical,
       regardless of its form.
    2. Jesus Christ is said to be "begotten, not made," asserting his
       co-eternalness with God, and confirming it by stating his role in
       the Creation.
    3. Finally, he is said to be "from the substance of the Father," in
       direct opposition to Arianism. Some ascribe the term
       Consubstantial, i.e., "of the same substance" (of the Father), to
       Constantine who, on this particular point, may have chosen to
       exercise his authority.

   Of the third article only the words "and in the Holy Spirit" were left;
   the original Nicene Creed ended with these words. Then followed
   immediately the canons of the council. Thus, instead of a baptismal
   creed acceptable to both the homoousian and Arian parties, as proposed
   by Eusebius, the council promulgated one which was unambiguous in the
   aspects touching upon the points of contention between these two
   positions, and one which was incompatible with the beliefs of Arians.
   From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification
   for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at
   baptism. In Rome, for example, the Apostles' Creed was popular,
   especially for use in Lent and the Easter season. In the Council of
   Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith
   clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who
   did not.

   The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of
   Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius, and elsewhere. Although
   the most vocal anti-Arians, the Homoousians (from the Koine Greek word
   translated as "of same substance" which was condemned at the Council of
   Antioch in 264-268), were in the minority, the Creed was accepted by
   the council as an expression of the bishops' common faith and the
   ancient faith of the whole Church.

   Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have
   helped bring the council to consensus. At the time of the council, he
   was the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters. Hosius stands
   at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the
   actual formulation of the creed. Great leaders such as Eustathius of
   Antioch, Alexander of Alexandria, Athanasius, and Marcellus of Ancyra
   all adhered to the Homoousian position.

   In spite of his sympathy for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea adhered to the
   decisions of the council, accepting the entire creed. The initial
   number of bishops supporting Arius was small. After a month of
   discussion, on June 19, there were only two left: Theonas of Marmarica
   in Libya, and Secundus of Ptolemais. Maris of Chalcedon, who initially
   supported Arianism, agreed to the whole creed. Similarly, Eusebius of
   Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for the certain
   statements.

   The emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refuses to
   endorse the Creed will be exiled. Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused
   to adhere to the creed, and were thus exiled aside from being
   excommunicated. The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and
   consigned to the flames , although there is no evidence that this
   occurred. Nevertheless, the controversy, already festering, continued
   in various parts of the empire.

Separation of Easter from the Jewish Passover

   After the June 19 settlement of the most important topic, the question
   of the date of the Christian Passover ( Easter) was brought up. This
   feast is linked to the Jewish Passover, as the crucifixion and
   resurrection of Jesus occurred during that festival. By the year 300,
   most Churches had adopted the Western style of celebrating the feast on
   the Sunday after the Passover, placing the emphasis on the
   resurrection, which occurred on a Sunday. Others however celebrated the
   feast on the 14th of the Jewish month Nisan, the date of the
   crucifixion according to the Bible's Hebrew calendar ( Leviticus 23:5,
   John 19:14). Hence this group was called Quartodecimans, which is
   derived from the Latin for 14. The Eastern Churches of Syria, Cilicia,
   and Mesopotamia determined the date of Christian Passover in relation
   to the 14th day of Nisan, in the Bible's Hebrew calendar. Alexandria
   and Rome, however, followed a different calculation, attributed to Pope
   Soter, so that Christian Passover would never coincide with the Jewish
   observance and decided in favour of celebrating on the first Sunday
   after the first full moon following the vernal equinox, independently
   of the Bible's Hebrew calendar.

   According to Duchesne, who founds his conclusions:
    1. on the conciliar letter to the Alexandrians preserved in Theodoret;
    2. on the circular letter of Constantine to the bishops after the
       council;
    3. on Athanasius;

   Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th Century, "… the emperor …
   convened a council of 318 bishops … in the city of Nicea. … They passed
   certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same
   time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous
   concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day.
   For it was variously observed by people…"

   The council assumed the task of regulating these differences, in part
   because some dioceses were determined not to have Christian Passover
   correspond with the Jewish calendar. "The feast of the resurrection was
   thenceforth required to be celebrated everywhere on a Sunday, and never
   on the day of the Jewish passover, but always after the fourteenth of
   Nisan, on the Sunday after the first vernal full moon. The leading
   motive for this regulation was opposition to Judaism, which had
   dishonored the passover by the crucifixion of the Lord." Constantine
   wrote that: "… it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of
   this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who
   have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are,
   therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. … Let us then
   have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have
   received from our Saviour a different way." Theodoret recorded the
   Emperor as saying: "It was, in the first place, declared improper to
   follow the custom of the Jews in the celebration of this holy festival,
   because, their hands having been stained with crime, the minds of these
   wretched men are necessarily blinded. … Let us, then, have nothing in
   common with the Jews, who are our adversaries. … avoiding all contact
   with that evil way. … who, after having compassed the death of the
   Lord, being out of their minds, are guided not by sound reason, but by
   an unrestrained passion, wherever their innate madness carries them. …
   a people so utterly depraved. … Therefore, this irregularity must be
   corrected, in order that we may no more have any thing in common with
   those parricides and the murderers of our Lord. … no single point in
   common with the perjury of the Jews."

   The Council of Nicaea, however, did not declare the Alexandrian or
   Roman calculations as normative. Instead, the council gave the Bishop
   of Alexandria the privilege of announcing annually the date of
   Christian Passover to the Roman curia. Although the synod undertook the
   regulation of the dating of Christian Passover, it contented itself
   with communicating its decision to the different dioceses, instead of
   establishing a canon. There was subsequent conflict over this very
   matter. See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.

Meletian Schism

   The suppression of the Meletian schism was one of the three important
   matters that came before the Council of Nicaea. Meletius, it was
   decided, should remain in his own city of Lycopolis, but without
   exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy; moreover he was
   forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another
   diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects. Melitius retained
   his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to
   receive again the imposition of hands, the ordinations performed by
   Meletius being therefore regarded as invalid. Clergy ordained by
   Meletius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by
   Alexander, and they were not to do anything without the consent of
   Bishop Alexander.

   In the event of the death of a non-Meletian bishop or ecclesiastic, the
   vacant see might be given to a Meletian, provided he were worthy and
   the popular election were ratified by Alexander. As to Meletius
   himself, episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These
   mild measures, however, were in vain; the Meletians joined the Arians
   and caused more dissension than ever, being among the worst enemies of
   Athanasius. The Meletians ultimately died out around the middle of the
   fifth century.

Other problems

   Finally, the council promulgated twenty new church laws, called canons,
   (though the exact number is subject to debate ), that is, unchanging
   rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the Nicene and Post-Nicene
   Fathers are as follows:

          1. prohibition of self- castration; (see Origen)
          2. establishment of a minimum term for catechumen;
          3. prohibition of the presence in the house of a cleric of a
          younger woman who might bring him under suspicion;
          4. ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three
          provincial bishops and confirmation by the metropolitan;
          5. provision for two provincial synods to be held annually;
          6. exceptional authority acknowledged for the patriarchs of
          Alexandria and Rome, for their respective regions;
          7. recognition of the honorary rights of the see of Jerusalem;
          8. provision for agreement with the Novatianists;
          9–14. provision for mild procedure against the lapsed during the
          persecution under Licinius;
          15–16. prohibition of the removal of priests;
          17. prohibition of usury among the clergy;
          18. precedence of bishops and presbyters before deacons in
          receiving Holy Communion, the Eucharist;
          19. declaration of the invalidity of baptism by Paulian
          heretics;
          20. prohibition of kneeling during the liturgy, on Sundays and
          in the fifty days of Eastertide ("the pentecost"). Standing was
          the normative posture for prayer at this time, as it still is
          among the Eastern Orthodox. (In time, Western Christianity
          adopted the term Pentecost to refer to the last Sunday of
          Eastertide, the fiftieth day.)

   On July 25, 325, in conclusion, the fathers of the council celebrated
   the emperor's twentieth anniversary. In his valedictory address,
   Constantine again informed his hearers how averse he was to dogmatic
   controversy; he wanted the Church to live in harmony and peace. In a
   circular letter, he announced the accomplished unity of practice by the
   whole Church in the date of the celebration of Christian Passover (now
   called Easter).

Effect of the council

   The long-term effects of the Council of Nicaea were significant. For
   the first time, representatives of many of the bishops of the Church
   convened to agree on a doctrinal statement. Also for the first time,
   the Emperor played a role, by calling together the bishops under his
   authority, and using the power of the state to give the Council's
   orders effect. This was the start of the Constantinian shift, an
   entangling of church and state that still gives rise to debate today.

   In the short-term, however, the council did not completely solve the
   problems it was convened to discuss. The Arians and the Meletians soon
   regained nearly all the rights they had lost, and Arianism continued to
   spread and to cause division in the Church during the remainder of the
   fourth century. Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia used his
   influence at court to sway Constantine's favour from the orthodox
   Nicene bishops to the Arians. Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and
   exiled in 330. Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as bishop of
   Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335 and Marcellus
   of Ancyra followed him in 336. Arius himself returned to Constantinople
   to be readmitted into the Church, but died shortly before he could be
   received. Constantine died the next year, after finally receiving
   baptism, from an Arian bishop, and "with his passing the first round in
   the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended."
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