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Fencing (sport)

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Sports

   In the broadest possible sense, fencing is the art and science of armed
   combat involving cutting, stabbing, or bludgeoning weapons directly
   manipulated by hand, rather than shot or thrown (in other words,
   swords, knives, pikes, bayonets, batons, clubs, and so on). In
   contemporary common usage, fencing tends to refer specifically to
   European schools of swordsmanship and to the modern Olympic sport that
   has evolved out of them.

Philosophies

   Contemporary fencing is divided in three broad categories:
     * Competitive fencing
     * Fencing as a Western martial art
     * Other forms of fencing

Competitive fencing

   There are three forms of competitive fencing in practice. Variations
   make each of them a distinct game. All three approach the activity as a
   sport, with varying degrees of connectedness to its historic past.
   Russian Ivan Tourchine and American Weston Kelsey fence in the second
   round of the Men's Individual Épée event in the 2004 Summer Olympics at
   the Helliniko Fencing Hall on August 17, 2004.
   Enlarge
   Russian Ivan Tourchine and American Weston Kelsey fence in the second
   round of the Men's Individual Épée event in the 2004 Summer Olympics at
   the Helliniko Fencing Hall on August 17, 2004.

Olympic fencing

   Olympic fencing (or just "fencing") refers to the fencing seen in most
   competitions (including the Olympic Games). It is marked by the use of
   electronic scoring equipment, and conducted according to rules laid
   down by the Fédération Internationale d'Escrime (FIE), the sports
   federation governing most international fencing competitions. The
   current rules are very loosely based on a set of conventions developed
   in 18th- and 19th-century Europe to govern fencing as a martial art and
   a gentlemanly pursuit. The weapons used are the electric foil, electric
   épée, and electric sabre.

   This article is predominantly about Olympic fencing.

Wheelchair fencing

   Wheelchair fencing, an original paralympic sport, was developed in
   post-World War II England. Minor modifications to the FIE rules allow
   disabled fencers to fence all three weapons. The most apparent change
   is that each fencer sits in a wheelchair fastened to a frame. Footwork
   is replaced by torso or arm movement, depending on the fencer's
   disability. The proximity of the two fencers tends to increase the pace
   of bouts, which require considerable skill. The weapons are identical
   to those used in Olympic fencing.

American Fencing League fencing

   American Fencing League (AFL) fencing is conducted in the United States
   according to rules of the American Fencing League, which are based on
   the 1940 rules of the old Amateur Fencers League of America. AFL
   fencing is not as purely athletic a game as Olympic fencing, as it has
   longer "phrases," longer time limits, 1-touch épée rules, a different
   approach to the principle of "right of way," and a revival of 3-weapon
   bouts. It uses the standard (non-electric) foil, standard épée, and
   standard sabre. Confusingly, it is sometimes referred to as classical
   fencing (see below). The United States Fencing Association (USFA) has
   taken the place of the AFL as the governing organization of fencing in
   the U.S.

Fencing as a Western martial art

   Some practitioners of fencing approach it as a Western martial art,
   with the goal being to train for a theoretical duel. The element of
   sport is absent (or nearly so) from these forms of fencing, but they
   all share a common origin with each other and with competitive fencing.

Classical fencing

   Classical fencing is differentiated from competitive fencing as being
   theoretically closer to swordplay as a martial art. Those who call
   themselves classical fencers may advocate the use of what they see as
   more authentic practices, including little or no emphasis on sport
   competition. There is strong interest within the classical fencing
   community in reviving the European fencing practices of the 19th and
   early 20th century, when fencers were expected to be able to fight a
   duel using their training. Weapons used are the standard (meaning "not
   electric", a usage from when electrical scoring was less common) foil,
   standard epee (often equipped with pointes d'arret), and the blunted
   duelling sabre.

   AFL fencing is often referred to as classical fencing, but this is a
   misnomer.

Historical fencing

   Historical fencing is a type of historical martial arts reconstruction
   based on surviving texts and traditions, with a particular emphasis on
   pre-19th century fencing practices. Predictably, historical fencers
   study an extremely wide array of weapons from different regions and
   periods. They may work with bucklers, daggers, polearms, bludgeoning
   weapons, etc.

   There is considerable overlap between classical and historical fencing
   —- especially with regard to 19th-century fencing practices.

Other forms of fencing

   Finally, there are several other forms of fencing which have little in
   common (beyond history) with either of the other two classifications.
   This circa 1900 painting illustrates a typical mensur bout in
   Heidelberg, Germany. The combatants have their swords high in the air
   and are wearing only metal goggles to protect the eyes and nose.
   Enlarge
   This circa 1900 painting illustrates a typical mensur bout in
   Heidelberg, Germany. The combatants have their swords high in the air
   and are wearing only metal goggles to protect the eyes and nose.

Academic fencing

   Academic fencing, or mensur, is a German student tradition that is
   still practiced in Germany, Switzerland and Austria (where it is
   illegal) as well as in Flanders and Latvia. The combat, which uses a
   cutting weapon known as the schlager, uses sharpened blades and takes
   place between members of fraternities - "Verbindungen" - in accordance
   with a strictly delineated set of conventions. It uses special
   protective gear that - in some cases - leaves most of the head and face
   unprotected. The ultimate goal is to develop personal character and
   thereby acquire a proper cut across the face with a sharp blade as a
   visible sign of manly courage.

Stage fencing

   Stage fencing seeks to achieve maximum theatrical impact in
   representing a wide range of styles, including both modern and
   historical forms of fencing. Theatrical fight scenes are choreographed
   and fencing actions are exaggerated for dramatic effect and visual
   clarity.

Recreational roleplaying

   Recreational roleplaying often incorporates fencing in the context of
   historical or fantasy themes (see the Society for Creative Anachronism,
   or live-action roleplaying games). Technique and scoring systems vary
   widely from one group to the next, as do the weapons. Depending on
   local conventions, participants may use modern sport fencing weapons,
   period weapons, or weapons invented specifically for the purpose (such
   as boffers).

Weapons

   Three weapons survive in modern competitive fencing: foil, épée, and
   sabre.

   The spadroon and the heavy cavalry-style sabre, both of which saw
   widespread competitive use in the 19th century, fell into disfavour in
   the early 20th century with the rising popularity of the lighter and
   faster weapon used today, based on the Italian duelling sabre. The
   singlestick featured in the 1904 Olympic Games, but it was already
   declining in popularity by that time. Bayonet fencing was somewhat
   slower to decline, with competitions organized by some armed forces as
   late as the 1940s and 1950s. Today these weapons are the preserve of
   historical fencing.

   While the weapons fencers use differ in size and purpose, their basic
   construction remains similar across the disciplines. Every weapon has a
   blade and a hilt. The tip of the blade is generally referred to as the
   point. The hilt consists of a guard and a grip. The guard (also known
   as the coquille, or the bellguard) is a metal shell designed to protect
   the fingers. The grip is the weapon's actual handle. There are a number
   of commonly used variants (see grip (sport fencing)). The more
   traditional kind tend to terminate with a pommel, a heavy nut intended
   to act as a counterweight for the blade.

Foil

   A foil fencer. Valid target (the torso) is in red.
   Enlarge
   A foil fencer. Valid target (the torso) is in red.

   The foil is a light and flexible weapon, originally developed in the
   mid 17th century as a training weapon for the court sword (a light
   one-handed sword designed almost exclusively for thrusting). It is the
   weapon that, traditionally, many students practice first. Hits can be
   scored only by hitting the valid target surface with the point of the
   weapon. The target area is restricted to the torso. A touch on an
   off-target area stops the bout, but does not score a point. There are
   "right of way" conventions or priority rules, whose basic idea is that
   the first person to create a viable threat or the last person to defend
   successfully receives a "right" to hit. If two hits arrive more or less
   simultaneously, only the fencer who had the "right of way" receives a
   point. If priority cannot be assigned unambiguously, no points are
   awarded. The basic idea behind the foil rules was, originally, to
   encourage the defence of one's vital areas, and to fence in a
   methodical way with initiative passing back and forth between the two
   fencers and no last-minute counter-attacks ---- which risk a double
   death.

   In modern competitive fencing "electric" weapons are used. These have a
   push-button on the point of the blade, which allows hits to be
   registered by the electronic scoring apparatus. In order to register,
   the button must be depressed with a force of at least 4.90 newtons (500
   grams-force) for at least 15 milliseconds (Originally 1-5 milliseconds,
   but changed in 2004, done to counter the popularity of the "flick
   attack"). Fencers wear conductive ( lamé) jackets covering their target
   area, which allow the scoring apparatus to differentiate between on-
   and off-target hits.

   The 1980s saw the widespread use of "flicks" — hits delivered with a
   whipping motion which bends the blade around the more traditional
   parries, and makes it possible to touch otherwise inaccessible areas,
   such as the back of the opponent. This has been regarded by some
   fencers as an unacceptable departure from the tradition of realistic
   combat, where only rigid blades would be used, while others feel that
   the flick adds to the variety of possible attacks and targets, thereby
   expanding the game of foil. Ironically, flicks were not entirely an
   artefact of electronic scoring. Indeed, in 1896, The Lancet published
   an account of an early "electric scorer" and claimed among its
   advantages, that "flicks, or blows, or grazes produce no result."
   Nevertheless, it is the introduction of electronic scoring to
   high-level competitive foil in the 1950s that is often blamed for the
   rise in the flick's popularity. In 2004- 2005, in an effort to curtail
   the use of flicks, the FIE raised the contact time required to trigger
   the scoring apparatus from 1 millisecond to the current 15
   milliseconds. This has not made flicks impossible, but it has made them
   more technically demanding, as glancing hits no longer register, and it
   is essential that the point arrives more or less square-on. Before they
   changed the rule, the blade could bend more easily so the back and
   flanks were easier to hit and score.

   Fencers soon discovered new ways to take advantage of, and some would
   say abuse (needs reference), these changes. Due to the longer point
   depress time, and the fact that the point will bounce off when it hits
   a hard surface, it was documented that by wearing a plastic chest
   protector can often defect a solid hit without registering a touch. In
   Junior fencing, it has became a common pratice for people to wear such
   protector. During a competition, it's often seen that a fencer hits his
   opponent with a great attack and the hit was valid (heard with a loud
   bang as it hit the protector), but the scoring box doesn't register a
   touch. It's an unwanted side effect and makes attacking in foil a less
   attractive action.

Épée

   An Épée fencer. Valid target (the entire body) is in red.
   Enlarge
   An Épée fencer. Valid target (the entire body) is in red.

   Épée fencing was started at the beginning of the 16th century. While
   the use of two-handed longsword was declining and full suits of plate
   armour became less common, this new weapon was born in Spain. The
   rapier épée had a long fine blade with a sharper edge, and the tip
   could be used to cut and thrust. The guard looked like a small basket
   drilled with holes, having a long, straight ramrod bored through it to
   be used in engaging and breaking the opponent's blade and point. The
   introduction of the rapier brought about a new style of fencing, used
   almost entirely in the civilian realm of battle.

   Like the foil, the épée is a thrusting weapon: to score a valid hit,
   the fencer must fix the point of his weapon on his opponent's target.
   However, épée lacks the foil's most artificial conventions: the
   restricted target area and the priority rules. In épée, a hit can be
   scored by landing a hit anywhere on the opponent's body. The fencer
   whose hit lands first receives the point, irrespective of what happened
   in the preceding phrase. If two hits arrive simultaneously (within 40
   milliseconds of each other), a double hit is recorded, and both fencers
   get a point (except for in modern pentathlon one-hit épée, where
   neither fencer receives a point).

   In order for the scoring apparatus to register a hit, the push-button
   on the end of the weapon must remain fully depressed (tip must be
   depressed for a certain distance) for 2-10 milliseconds. To register,
   the hit must arrive with a force of at least 7.35 newtons (the
   equivalent of 750 grams of stationary mass) - a slightly higher
   threshold than the foil's 4.9 newtons (500 grams). All hits register as
   valid, unless they land on a grounded metal surface, such as a part of
   the opponent's weapon, in which case they do not register at all. At
   large events, grounded conductive pistes are often used in order to
   prevent the registration of hits against the floor. At smaller events
   and in club fencing, it is generally the responsibility of the referee
   to watch out for floor hits. These often happen by accident, when an
   épéeist tries to hit the opponent's foot and misses. In such cases,
   they are simply ignored. However, deliberate hits against the floor are
   treated as "dishonest fencing," and penalized accordingly (see "The
   Practice of Fencing" below).

   In the pre-electric era, épéeists used a point d'arret, a three-pronged
   point with small protruding spikes, which would snag on the opponent's
   clothing or mask, helping the referee to see the hits. The spikes
   caused épée fencing to be a notoriously painful affair, and épéeists
   could be easily recognized by the tears in their jacket sleeves. These
   days, the adherents of the point d'arret are few and far between, and
   non-electric weapons are generally fitted with foil-style rubber
   buttons.

   The épée is the heaviest of the three weapons (approaching the weight
   of an actual court sword). However, ultra-lightweight blades can
   actually reduce the weight of an épée to below that of a foil. On
   low-end weapons, the épée has a relatively stiff blade, though new
   technology has resulted in a flexible blade comparable to the other
   weapons. The épée is characterized by a V-shaped or approximately
   triangular cross-section, and a large round guard which offers much
   more protection to the wrist than the foil guard.

   Épée fencing tends to be more conservative in style than the other
   weapons, and bouts tend to be somewhat more deliberate.

Sabre

   A sabre fencer. Valid target (everything from the waist up, including
   the arms and head) is in red (exception: The hands, which are shown in
   red, are not valid targets).
   Enlarge
   A sabre fencer. Valid target (everything from the waist up, including
   the arms and head) is in red (exception: The hands, which are shown in
   red, are not valid targets).

   The sabre is the "cutting" weapon, with a curved guard and a triangular
   blade. However, in modern electric scoring, a touch with any part of
   the sabre, point, flat or edge, as long as it is on target, will
   register a hit.

   The modern sabre is commonly believed to have taken its origins and
   traditions from the cavalry sabre, but that has recently been exposed
   as a myth. It is believed that the Hungarians introduced sabre fencing
   in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. Their sabre, derived
   from oriental scimitars, had a flat, slightly curved blade and was not
   as wide and thick as the French cavalry sabre. The Hungarians could not
   perfect their sabre until they were influenced by the Italian school,
   which helped them to perfect their teaching.

   The target area in sabre is everything from the waist up, except for
   the hands. A hit that lands off target will not register a light or
   stop the bout.

   Like foil fencing, sabre fencing uses right of way rules. However, the
   definition of an "attack" is slightly different for the two weapons,
   and as a result, the right of way rules distinguish sabre and foil,
   though the basic concepts are the same. Sabre right of way rewards very
   fast fencing (on offence and defence), and so sabre fencing tends to be
   more aggressive in style than the other weapons.

Protective clothing

   Equipment of a right-handed épée fencer: 1-Jacket 2-Glove 3-Body wire
   4-Épée 5-Breeches 6-Mask 7-Plastron Not pictured: socks and shoes
   Enlarge
   Equipment of a right-handed épée fencer: 1-Jacket 2-Glove 3-Body wire
   4-Épée 5-Breeches 6-Mask 7-Plastron
   Not pictured: socks and shoes

   The clothing which is worn in modern fencing is made of tough cotton or
   nylon. Kevlar was added to top level uniform pieces (jacket, knickers,
   underarm protector, and the bib of the mask) following the Smirnov
   incident at the 1982 World Championships in Rome. However, kevlar
   breaks down in chlorine and UV light, so the act of washing one's
   uniform and/or hanging it up in the sun to dry actually damaged the
   kevlar's ability to do the job.

   In recent years other ballistic fabrics such as Dyneema have been
   developed that perform the puncture resistance function and which do
   not have kevlar's weakness. In fact, the FIE rules state that the
   entirety of the uniform (meaning FIE level clothing, as the rules are
   written for FIE tournaments) must be made of fabric that resists a
   force of 800 newtons (1600N in the mask bib).

   The complete fencing kit includes the following items of clothing:
     * Form-fitting jacket, covering groin and with strap (croissard)
       which goes between the legs, a small gorget of folded fabric is
       also sewn in around the collar to prevent a blade from slipping
       upwards towards the neck.
     * Under-arm protector (plastron) which goes underneath the jacket and
       provides double protection on the sword arm side and upper arm. It
       is required to not have a seam in the armpit, which would line up
       with the jacket seam and provide a weak spot.
     * Glove, with a gauntlet that prevents swords going up the sleeve and
       causing injury, as well as protecting the hand and providing a good
       grip
     * Breeches, which are a pair of trousers. The legs are supposed to
       hold just below the knee.
     * Knee-length socks, which cover the rest of the leg.
     * Mask, including a bib which protects the neck. For competition, the
       bib must be sewn into the mask frame to eliminate a hole that might
       admit a blade. Thus, masks with snap-in bibs are not legal for
       competition. The mask can usually support 12 kilograms of force,
       however FIE regulation masks can stand much more, at least 25 kg.
     * Plastic chest protector, mandatory for female fencers. While male
       versions are also available, they were, until recently, primarily
       worn by instructors, who are hit far more often during training
       than their students. Since the change of the depression timing (see
       above), these are increasingly popular in foil, as the hard surface
       increases the likelihood of point bounce and thus a failure for a
       hit to register. Plastrons are still mandatory, though.

   Traditionally, the uniform is white in colour. This is primarily to
   assist the judges in seeing touches scored (black being the traditional
   colour for masters), but rules against non-white uniforms may also have
   been intended to combat sponsorship and the commercialization of the
   sport. However, recently the FIE rules have been relaxed to allow
   coloured uniforms. The colour white might also be traced back to times
   before electronic scoring equipment, when the blades were sometimes
   covered in soot or coloured chalk to make a mark on the opponent's
   clothing.
     * Fencing Masters wear a heavier protective jacket, usually
       reinforced by plastic foam to cushion the numerous hits an
       instructor has to endure.
     * Sometimes in practice, masters wear a protective sleeve or a leg
       leather for protection of their fencing arm or leg.

Practice

   The following description pertains to the practice of modern
   competitive fencing, as governed by the FIE, and does not cover the
   many variations such as fencing within a circle popular with SCA
   enthusiasts.

Piste

   A fencing bout takes place on a strip, or piste, which, according to
   the current FIE regulations, should be between 1.5 and 2 meters wide
   and 14 meters long. Two meters either side of the mid-point, there are
   two en-garde lines, where the fencers stand at the beginning of the
   bout. There are also two warning lines two metres from either end of
   the strip, to let a retreating fencer know that he is nearly out of
   space. Retreating off of the strip scores a touch for the opponent.

Participants

   There are at least three people involved: two fencers and a referee.

   The referee may be assisted by two or four side-judges. This was common
   practice prior to the introduction of electronic scoring. Their
   function is somewhat similar to that of linesmen in soccer. Their
   primary job used to be to watch for hits scored. Consequently, the
   arrival of the electronic scoring apparatus has rendered them largely
   redundant. Under current FIE rules, a fencer may ask for two
   side-judges (one to watch each fencer) if (s)he thinks that the referee
   is failing to notice some infringement of the rules on his opponent's
   part (such as use of the unarmed hand, substitution of the valid target
   area, breaching the boundary of the piste etc.).

Protocol

   The referee stands at the side of the piste. The fencers walk on piste
   fully dressed, aside from the mask. If necessary, they plug their body
   wires into the spools connected to the electronic scoring apparatus and
   test their weapons against each other, to make sure everything is
   functioning. They then retreat to their en-garde lines.

   Prior to starting a bout, the fencers must salute each other. Refusal
   to do so can result in a fencer's suspension or disqualification. The
   only mandatory salute is that of the opponent. They may also salute the
   president (referee) and their audience. In non-electric events the 4
   judges should be saluted also. There are many variations of the salute,
   including some fairly theatrical ones, but the common theme is that the
   fencer stands upright, mask off, facing whomever he/she is saluting and
   raises his/her sword to a vertical position with the guard either at or
   just below face level, and then lowers it again. Various apocryphal
   stories about the origin of the salute circulate, like gladiators
   saluting each other in the arena, crusaders pointing their sword
   heavenward in pre-battle prayer, duellists showing each other that
   their swords are the same length, etc. The most likely source of the
   modern fencing salute is the " Present arms" command from military
   drill, which originated in the 16th century.

   After the salutes are completed, the referee will call "En-garde!" The
   fencers put on their masks and adopt the fencing stance with the front
   foot behind the en-garde line and the blade in the sixte line. They are
   now in the on-guard (en-garde) position. The referee then calls
   "Ready?" In some countries, the fencers are required to confirm that
   they are. Finally the referee will call "Play!" or "Fence!", and the
   bout will start. Judging is often done in French, in which case the
   referee will say "En garde. Prêt. Allez". (In some circles, beginning
   the bout with the order "fence" is deemed incorrect and is contrary to
   the rules in certain countries). To interrupt the bout the referee
   calls "Halt!" (if judging in French, the term is the same). A bout may
   be interrupted for several reasons: a touch has been made, the rules
   have been breached, the situation is unsafe, or the action has become
   so disorganized that the referee can no longer follow it. Once the bout
   is stopped, the referee will, if necessary, explain his reasons for
   stopping it, analyse what has just happened and award points or give
   out penalties. If a point has been awarded, then the competitors return
   to their en-garde lines; if not, they remain approximately where they
   were when the bout was interrupted. The referee will then restart the
   bout as before. If the fencers were within lunging distance when the
   bout was interrupted and they are not required to return to their
   en-garde lines, the referee will ask both fencers to give sufficient
   ground to ensure a fair start. A common way of establishing the correct
   distance is to ask both fencers to straighten their arms and to step
   back to the point where their blades no longer overlap in the referee's
   view. If a fencer needs to stop the bout to adjust his/her mask, tie
   his/her shoe or something else needs that requires the referee's
   attention, he/she may do so by tapping their back foot and/or waving
   their back hand and the referee will generally call a halt.

   This procedure is repeated until either one of the fencers has reached
   the required number of points (generally, 1, 5, 10, or 15, depending on
   the format of the bout) or until the time allowed for the bout runs
   out.

   Fencing bouts are timed: the clock is started every time the referee
   calls "Play" and stopped every time he calls "Halt!". The bout must
   stop when the designated time has been reached (this again, varies,
   depending on the format of the bout, three minutes to every five points
   is the norm). If the bout goes to full time, the fencer who has scored
   more hits wins. If the fencers are drawn at full time, they will be
   given a minute of extra time. The first fencer to touch in that minute
   wins. Before the extra time begins, one fencer is given priority
   through a random decision (coin toss, pencil spin, etc.). If no touch
   occurs in that one minute, the fencer with priority wins. Note that
   this concept of priority is not the same as the priority used in foil
   and sabre to determine right-of-way.

Priority ("right of way") rules

   Foil and sabre are governed by priority rules, according to which the
   fencer who is the first to initiate an attack or the last to take a
   successful parry receives priority. When both fencers hit more or less
   simultaneously, only the fencer who had priority receives the point. If
   priority cannot be assigned unambiguously, no points are awarded. These
   rules were adopted in the 18th century as part of teaching practice.
   Their aim is to encourage "sensible" fencing and reward initiative and
   circumspection at the same time, in particular to reward fencers for
   properly made attacks, and penalize fencers for attacking into such an
   attack that lands, an action that could be lethal with sharp blades.
   The risk of both duellists charging onto one another's swords is kept
   to a minimum. At least in principle, in a prolonged phrase, the
   initiative passes smoothly from one fencer to the other, and back
   again, and so on. In practice most phrases are broken off quickly if
   neither fencer lands.

   Despite the simplicity of the underlying principles, priority rules are
   somewhat convoluted, and their interpretation is a source of much
   acrimony. Much of this acrimony is centered on the definition of
   attack. According to the FIE rules, an attack is defined as "the
   initial offensive action made by extending the arm and continuously
   threatening the opponent's target..." The general consensus is that the
   referee should look for whose arm starts straightening first. In
   practice, referees, especially inexperienced ones, may go for the easy
   option and give priority to whichever fencer happened to be moving
   forwards. This is technically wrong, but it is far from unusual. There
   is also a school of thought, subscribed to by a relatively small
   minority, that priority should be given to the fencer who was the first
   to straighten his arm fully. This, again, is out of line with the
   current rules. The adherents argue that this is the more classical way
   of doing things, but this claim is dubious, as actual practice decades
   ago based right of way on which fencer started straightening the arm
   (not which fencer completed the extension); and the reworded rules
   conform better to actual, traditional practice which was documented in
   some older editions of the rules. For example, the 1957 Amateur Fencers
   League of America (AFLA) rules said an attack "consists of a forward
   movement of the weapon", and "the rules do not require that the attack
   be made with a fully extended arm" (pages 141-142).

   It is clear that an attack which has failed (i.e. has missed or been
   parried) is no longer an attack. The priority then passes to the
   defending fencer; he is now free to launch a riposte (if he has just
   parried an attack) or a counterattack (if the attack missed of its own
   accord). Whatever he chooses to do, he must do it immediately, as
   hesitation also leads to loss of priority. A hesitant defender may lose
   priority and get hit with a renewal of the initial attack.

   A parry, just like an attack, to be counted as valid must fulfil
   certain criteria. In foil any action that deflects a linear attack from
   its passage towards the target (i.e. temporarily removes the threat by
   deviating the point from the target) or breaks the momentum of an
   attack delivered by a swinging motion will, generally, be given as a
   parry. Consequently, foilists often parry with a sharp beating motion
   which does not necessarily end in a full cover. In sabre, according to
   the FIE rules, "the parry is properly carried out when, before the
   completion of the attack, it prevents the arrival of that attack by
   closing the line in which that attack is to finish". In practice, when
   blades clash, sabre referees tend to look at the point of blade
   contact: contact of a defender's forte with an attacker's foible is
   generally counted as a parry, and the priority passes to the defender;
   whereas contact of a defender's foible with an attacker's forte is
   counted as a malparry, and the priority stays with the attacker. Some
   fencers refer to a retreat that makes an attack fall short as a
   "distance parry", but this is informal use: an actual parry requires
   blade contact.

Penalties

   Modern fencing also includes the addition of cards/flags (or
   penalties). Each card has a different meaning. A fencer penalized with
   a yellow card is warned, but no other action is taken. A fencer
   penalized with a red card is warned, and a touch is awarded to his
   opponent. A fencer penalized with a black card is excluded from the
   competition, and may be excluded from the tournament, expelled from the
   venue, or suspended from future tournaments in the case of serious
   offences.

   Offences are broken down into four groups, and penalties are assessed
   based upon the group of the offence. Group 1 offences include actions
   such as making bodily contact with the opposing fencer (in foil or
   sabre), delaying the bout, or removing equipment. The first group 1
   offence committed by a fencer in a bout is penalized with a yellow
   card. Subsequent group 1 offences committed by that fencer are
   penalized with a red card. Group 2 offences include actions that are
   vindictive or violent in nature, or the failure to report to the strip
   with proper inspection marks on equipment. All group 2 offences are
   penalized with a red card. Group 3 offences include disturbing the
   order of a bout, or intentionally falsifying inspection marks. The
   first group 3 offence committed by a fencer is penalized with a red
   card, while any subsequent group 3 offence is penalized with a black
   card. Group 4 offences include doping, manifest cheating, and other
   breaches of protocol, such as a refusal to salute. Group 4 offences are
   penalized with a black card.

   There is also a specific penalty for putting one or both feet off the
   side edge of the piste: halt is called, and the opponent may then
   advance one metre towards the penalised fencer. The penalised fencer
   must retreat to 'normal' distance before the bout can restart - that
   is, the distance where both fencers can stand on-guard, with their arms
   and swords extended directly at their opponent, and their blades do not
   cross. If this puts the fencer beyond the back edge of the piste, the
   fencer's opponent receives a point.

Electronic scoring equipment

   Electronic scoring is used in all major national and international, and
   most local, competitions. At Olympic level, it was first introduced to
   épée in 1936, to foil in 1956, and to sabre in 1988. There are,
   however, still traditionalists within the fencing community who have
   fundamental objections to the practice (discussed later on in this
   section).

   The central unit of the scoring system is commonly known as "the box".
   In the simplest version both fencers' weapons are connected to the box
   via long retractable cables. The box normally carries a set of lights
   to signal when a touch has been made. (Larger peripheral lights are
   also often used.) In foil and sabre, because of the need to distinguish
   on-target hits from off-target ones, special conductive clothing must
   be worn. This includes a jacket of conducting ( lamé) cloth (for both
   weapons) and (in the case of sabre) a conducting mask and cuff (
   manchette).

   Recently, reel-less gear has been adopted for sabre at top
   competitions, including the Athens Olympics. In this system, which
   dispenses with the spool (by using the fencer's own body as a grounding
   point), the lights and detectors are mounted directly on the fencers'
   masks. For the sake of the audience, clearly visible peripheral lights
   triggered by wireless transmission may be used. However, the mask
   lights must remain as the official indicators, as FIE regulations
   prohibit the use of wireless transmitters in official scoring
   equipment, to prevent cheating. Plans for reel-less épée and foil have
   not yet been adopted because of technical complications.

   In the case of foil and épée, hits are registered by depressing a small
   push-button on the end of the blade. In foil, the hit must land on the
   opponent's lame to be considered on-target. (On-target hits set off
   coloured lights; off-target hits set off white lights.) At high level
   foil and épée competitions, grounded conductive pistes are normally
   laid down to ensure that bouts are not disrupted by accidental hits on
   the floor. In sabre, an on-target hit is registered whenever a fencer's
   blade comes into contact with the opponent's lamé jacket, cuff or mask.
   Off-target hits are not registered at all in sabre. It has been
   proposed that a similar arrangement (non-registration of off-target
   hits) be adopted for foil. This proposal is due to be reviewed at the
   2007 FIE Congress. In épée the entire body is on-target, so the subject
   of off-target hits does not arise (unless you count the hits which miss
   the opponet entirely and land on an ungrounded section of the floor -
   needless to say doing so on purpose is considered cheating). Finally
   the competitors weapons are always grounded so hits against an
   opponent's blade or coquille do not register.

   In foil and sabre, despite the presence of all the gadgetry, it is
   still the referee's job to analyse the phrase and, in the case of
   simultaneous hits, to determine which fencer had the right of way.

   "Electric" fencing has not been without its problems. One of the most
   talked about has been the registration of glancing hits in foil.
   Traditionally, a valid, "palpable" hit could only be scored, if the
   point were fixed on the target in such a manner, as would be likely to
   pierce the skin, had the weapon been sharp. However, the electric foil
   point (the push-button on the end of the blade) lacks directionality,
   so hits which arrive at a very high angle of incidence can still
   register. In the 1980s, this lead to a growing popularity of hits
   delivered with a whip-like action (commonly known as "the flick"),
   bending the blade around the opponent's parry. Many saw this as an
   unacceptable deviation from tradition. In fact, the disputes over the
   flick grew so bitter that a number of traditionalists advocated (and
   still continue to advocate) complete abandonment of electronic scoring
   as something detrimental to fencing as an art. In 2004-2005 the FIE
   brought in rule changes to address such concerns. The dwell time (the
   length of time the point has to remain depressed in order to register a
   hit) was increased from 1 millisecond to 15 milliseconds. This change
   has been rather controversial. While it has not eliminated the flick
   altogether, it has made it technically trickier thereby denting its
   popularity. However, there have been some serious problems with
   apparently "palpable" hits not registering. Moreover, the imperative to
   make clear "square-on" hits has lead to a number of unforeseen results,
   which, it has been argued, have made foil less rather than more
   classical. The following have been reported:
     * Unwillingness to attack, leading to long periods of inactivity and
       loss of certain visually striking (but risky) manoeuvres;
     * Loss of popularity of the more sophisticated and technically
       demanding compound actions;
     * A rise in the number of renewed offensive actions (at the expense
       of counter-ripostes) delivered with a decidedly unclassical pumping
       action;
     * A rise in the number of counterattacks with avoidance (at the
       expense of ripostes);
     * Increased popularity of unorthodox "cowering" on-guard positions
       among young fencers;
     * Hard hitting.
     * Bouncing from direct hits on certain protective gear.

   Having said that, every one of the above claims is a subject of
   dispute.

   In sabre, the inadequacy of existing sensors has made it necessary to
   dispense with the requirement that a cut must be delivered with either
   the leading or the reverse edge of the blade and that, once again, it
   must arrive with sufficient force to have caused an injury had the
   blade been sharp (but not so forcefully as to injure your opponent with
   a blunt weapon!) At present, any contact between the blade and the
   opponent's target is counted as a valid hit. Some argue that this has
   reduced sabre to a two-man game of tag; others argue that this has made
   the game more sophisticated.

   The other serious problem in sabre (universally acknowledged as a
   problem) is that of "whip-over." The flexibility of the blades is such
   that the momentum of a cut can often "whip" the end of the blade around
   the defender's parry. The low success rate of parries (compared to
   other weapons) is seen by many as impoverishing the tactical repertory
   of the weapon. In 2000 the FIE brought in rule changes requiring
   stiffer blades. This has improved matters but not eradicated the
   problem altogether. There has been talk of making the sabre guard
   smaller, in order to make attacks on preparation and counterattacks
   easier and thus slow down the momentum of the attack, giving the
   defender more of a chance.

   Finally, the cut-out times deserve a mention. The cutout time is the
   maximum time allowed by the box between two hits registering as
   simultaneous (if this time is exceeded, only one light will appear). In
   épée this time is very short: 40 milliseconds. This means that, so far
   as human perception is concerned, the hits really do need to arrive at
   the same instant. In foil and sabre, where priority rules apply, the
   cutout times are considerably longer (hundreds of milliseconds). This
   was a source of two problems:
     * Double lights are a frequent occurrence, making refereeing
       difficult. Too many decisions are disputed.
     * Once again, the attacker gains an unreasonable advantage. It is
       possible to execute a long marching attack with only a hint of an
       arm extension, clearly inviting an attack on preparation, which is
       then followed by a delayed trompment.

   For those reasons, in 2004-2005 the FIE slashed the cut-out times for
   foil and sabre from 750 milliseconds to 350 milliseconds and from 350
   milliseconds to 120 milliseconds respectively. While these changes were
   controversial at first, the fencing community now seems to have
   accepted them. Some concerns remain at sabre, where immediate renewals
   frequently "time out" indirect ripostes.

Non-electronic scoring

   Prior to the introduction of electronic scoring equipment, the
   president of jury was assisted by four judges. Two judges were
   positioned behind each fencer, one on each side of the strip. The
   judges watched the fencer opposite to see if he was hit. This system is
   sometimes called "dry" fencing (USA) or "steam" (United Kingdom,
   Australia) fencing.

   When a judge thought he saw a hit, he raised his hand. The president (
   referee or director) then stopped the bout and reviewed the relevant
   phases of the action, polling the judges at each stage to determine
   whether there was a touch, and (in foil and sabre) whether the touch
   was valid or invalid. The judges would answer "Yes", "Yes, but
   off-target" (in foil and sabre), "No", or "Abstain". Each judge had one
   vote, and the president had one and a half votes. Thus, two judges
   could overrule the president; but if the judges disagreed, or if one
   judge abstained, the president's opinion ruled.

   Épée fencing was later conducted with red dye on the tip, easily seen
   on the white uniform. As a bout went on, if a touch was seen, a red
   mark would appear. Between the halts of the director, judges would
   inspect each fencer for any red marks. Once one was found, it was
   circled in a dark pencil to show that it had already been counted. The
   red dye was not easily removed, preventing any cheating. The only way
   to remove it was through certain acids such as vinegar. Thus, épée
   fencers became renowned for their reek of vinegar until the invention
   of electronic equipment.

   Despite the problems mentioned in the previous section on electronic
   scoring, the vast majority of fencing considers it a great improvement
   over non-electric system described here. As described in an article in
   the London newspaper, The Daily Courier, on June 25, 1896: "Every one
   who has watched a bout with the foils knows that the task of judging
   the hits is with a pair of amateurs difficult enough, and with a
   well-matched pair of maîtres d’escrime well-nigh impossible." In
   addition there were frequent problems with bias and collusion, leading
   to the wry expression that a dry jury consisted of "4 blind men and a
   thief". Some fencers, particularly in sabre, would hit hard to ensure
   their touches could not be missed, and dry sabre could be an extremely
   painful undertaking despite the protective jackets. Even in the best of
   circumstances, it was very difficult to accurately score hits, and it
   systematically under-reported valid touches to hard-to-see areas, such
   as the back or flank under the arm. Consequently, even though there are
   limitations and controversy over electronic scoring, and despite its
   rejection by the classical fencers, electronic scoring is by far the
   dominant method used to determine if touches land.

Footwork

   In a fencing bout, a great deal depends on being in the right place at
   the right time. Fencers are constantly maneuvring in and out of each
   other's range, accelerating, decelerating, changing directions and so
   on. All this has to be done with minimum effort and maximum grace,
   which makes footwork arguably the most important aspect of a fencer's
   training regimen. In fact, in the first half of the 20th century it was
   common practice to put fencers through six months to a year of footwork
   before they were ever allowed to hold a sword. This practice has now
   been largely abandoned.

   Modern fencing tends to be quite linear. This is dictated by the width
   of the piste — no more than 2m — and rules dictating a halt once
   fencers come into contact or pass each other.

   These rules may reflect older duelling styles and the changing nature
   of weapons: Sideways movement, which was a common defence against an
   attack with a comparatively unwieldy weapon like the rapier, became an
   unreliable tactic when faced with smaller, much lighter weapons. In
   contemporary sport fencing defence by footwork usually takes the shape
   of moving either directly away from your opponent (out of his range) or
   directly towards him (making the attack "overshoot").

   The fencing stance and movements may appear artificial, but they have
   evolved over centuries of trial and error to afford optimal protection
   and mobility. Fencers tend to stand somewhat side-on to the principal
   direction of movement (the fencing line), leading with the weapon side
   (right for a right-hander, left for a left-hander). In this fencing
   stance the feet are a shoulderwidth or more apart with the leading foot
   forward and the trailing foot at right angles to it. Finally, the knees
   are well bent and the centre of gravity is kept mid way between the
   heels. The fencer is now in a position where he is well balanced, able
   to use his leg muscles to generate rapid bursts of speed and change
   directions with comparative ease. In foil and épée, particularly, this
   stance decreases the vulnerable target area. Further, and more
   importantly, it maintains balance and ease of movement both forward and
   backward.

   The most common way of delivering an attack in fencing is the lunge,
   where the fencer reaches out with his front foot and straightens his
   back leg. This maneuver has the advantage of allowing the fencer to
   maintain balance while covering far more distance than in a single
   step, yet still allowing a return to the more defensive fencing stance.

   Sometimes fencers do take the more "natural" kind of steps, where the
   back foot passes the front foot. These are usually referred to as
   cross-steps. While cross-steps do have the advantage of range and
   speed, they may put a fencer in an awkward and frequently unbalanced
   position mid-step.

   A somewhat exaggerated version of the cross-step, sometimes used to
   deliver an attack in foil or épée, is the flèche ("arrow" in French).
   In the flèche, the fencer leans forward and takes a long running
   cross-step, generating most of the thrust with his front leg. Ideally,
   the hit delivered with a flèche should arrive as or just before the
   fencer's front foot hits the ground. When (as often happens) the
   flèching fencer runs past the defender the defender is allowed to
   finish a defensive action, generally a riposte following a parry.

   In sabre forward cross-steps were prohibited in the 1990s, one of
   numerous efforts to increase the sport's popular appeal.

   Variations and portions of the above movements can also be used by
   themselves. For example, a check-step forward is performed by moving
   the back foot as in a retreat, then performing an entire advance. This
   manoeuvre can trick your opponent into thinking that you are
   retreating, when in reality you are about to close distance.

   Other footwork actions include the appel (French for "call"), which is
   a stomp designed to upset the opponent's perception of rhythm, and the
   ballestra, which is a "hopping" step occasionally used as a preparation
   for attacks (the back foot leaves the ground, while the front foot is
   still in mid-air; both feet come down at the same time).

   In general, Olympic fencing has put a premium on balance, speed, and
   athleticism in footwork, somewhat diluting orthodoxies regarding the
   classical stances and methods. To a degree, this has led to increasing
   resemblance between fencing footwork and that of other martial arts,
   with the significant caveat that a scoring "touch" requires almost no
   power behind the blow, only timing and the ability to manipulate
   distance.

Competition

   Fencing tournaments are varied in their format, and there are both
   individual and team competitions. A tournament may comprise all three
   weapons, both individual and team, or it may be very specific, such as
   an Epee Challenge, with individual épée only. And, as in many sports,
   men and women compete separately.

Individual events

   Generally, an individual event consists of two parts: the pools, and
   the direct eliminations.

   In the pools, fencers are divided into groups, and every fencer in a
   pool will have the chance to fence every other fencer once. The size
   and number of the pools is determined by the number of athletes who
   have registered for the competition.

   Pool bouts are three minutes long, and are fenced to five points. If no
   fencer reaches five points, then the one with the most points after
   three minutes wins. Pool results are recorded on a scoresheet, which
   must be signed by the fencers after their last match. The referee will
   write down how many points each fencer scored in the bout, although
   normally if a fencer won with five points a "V" (for victoire) is
   written down instead of a 5. Losing a pool match does not eliminate a
   fencer from the tournament.

   In some tournaments, there are two rounds of pools, with the second
   round following the same format, but with pools of different fencers.

   After the pools are finished, the direct elimination round starts.
   Fencers are sorted in a table of some power of 2 (16, 32, 64, etc.)
   based on how many people are competing. There are rarely exactly the
   right number of people for this to work out perfectly, so the lowest
   ranking fencers may be eliminated, or they may be included in the next
   highest power of 2 with the top fencers receiving a bye.

   Once the table size has been chosen, fencers are slotted into the table
   like this: first place vs. last place, second vs. second last, third
   vs. third last etc. A fencers place is decided by their indicator
   score, which is calculated by the numbers of hits for and against
   during the pool rounds.

   The elimination round matches in foil and épée are fenced in three
   periods of three minutes each. In between each period, there is a one
   minute break. Sabre matches are so much faster that the three minute
   mark is almost never reached. Therefore, in sabre, when one fencer
   reaches 8 points, there is a one minute break.

   In all three weapons, the match goes until 15 points. If no one has
   reached 15 points, then the fencer with the most points wins. The rules
   for ties are explained above under Protocol. The winner carries on in
   the tournament, and loser is eliminated.

   Fencing is slightly unusual in that no one has to fence for third
   place. Instead, two bronze medals are given to the losers of the
   semi-final round.

Team events

   Team competition involves teams of three fencers. A fourth fencer can
   be allowed on the team as an alternate, but as soon as the fourth has
   been subbed in, they cannot leave again. The opposing team must be
   alerted of this substitution at least one round before it happens.

   The modern team competition is similar to the pool round of the
   individual competition. The fencers from opposing teams will each fence
   each other once, making for a total of nine matches. At the beginning
   of the team match, each team fills out one side of a score sheet with
   the order they will fence in. Teams are not aware of the order their
   opponents will be fencing in, although the sheet is designed so that no
   two athletes will fence each other twice.

   Matches between teams are three minutes long, or to 5 points, as in the
   pools. There are important differences, however: each match the score
   carries over, and the maximum score for each match is increased by 5.
   For example, lets imagine that Fencer A from Team 1 and Fencer X from
   Team 2 finish their first bout at 5-3. Next, Fencer B and Fencer Y step
   on the piste. They will be fencing to 10 points, but Fencer B starts at
   5, and Fencer Y starts at 3, right where their team-mates left them.
   This means that Fencer Y can still pull ahead, if she scores 7 points
   before Fencer B scores 5.

   Imagine, however, things go slowly, and after three minutes the total
   score is 8-6. Although neither fencer reached the limit of 10 total
   points for this match, the next pair to fence will still be able to go
   as high as 15. In other words, the maximum score for each round
   continues increasing by 5 regardless of how many points were scored in
   the previous match.

   Since there are 9 matches, the highest score possible is 45 points.
   However, the winner is simply the team with the highest score at the
   end of the ninth match, even if it is less than 45. While sabre almost
   inevitably goes to 45, it is not unusual to see an epee score in the
   mid to low thirties. If there is a tie at the end of the ninth match,
   then the usual tie-breaking rules apply, and it is the same two fencers
   who will do the tie-breaker match.

   Team tournaments sometimes use pools and elimination rounds, although
   given the possible length of a team match (often a half-hour each),
   this is not so common, and they usually begin in a direct elimination
   format. The seeding of the teams in this case can be random, or based
   on the performance of the individual members (if it is a tournament
   with both), or even based on the results of the same team at other
   tournaments (for example if it is a national team). Unlike individual
   tournaments, teams must almost always fence for bronze.

   There is also an older team format, no longer is popular use. Under
   these rules, the teams were still three members each, and still
   consisted of nine matches round-robin tournament style. However, scores
   did not carry over. The team to first win 5 matches (a majority) was
   declared the winner.

Collegiate fencing

   Collegiate fencing has existed for a long time in the US. Some of the
   earliest programs came from the Ivy League schools, but now there are
   over 100 fencing programs nation-wide. Both clubs and varsity teams
   participate in the sport, however only the varsity teams may
   participate in the NCAA championship tournament. Due to the limited
   number of colleges that have fencing teams, teams fence inter-division
   (teams from Division I schools to Division III), and all divisions
   participate in the NCAA Championships. In 2006 Harvard edged out Penn
   State to win their first national championship in the sport.

   Collegiate fencing tournaments are "team tournaments" in a sense, but
   contrary to what many people expect, collegiate meets are not run as
   45-touch relays. Schools compete against each other one at a time. In
   each weapon and gender, three fencers from each school fence three
   fencers on the opposing team in five-touch bouts. (Substitutions are
   allowed, so more than three fencers per squad can compete in a
   tournament.) A fencer's individual results in collegiate tournaments
   and regional championships are used to select the fencers who will
   compete in NCAA championships. Individual results for fencers from each
   school are combined to judge the school's overall performance and to
   calculate how it should be placed in a given tournament.
     * Intercollegiate Fencing Association
     * List of NCAA Fencing Schools
     * List of club-level US collegiate fencing programs

High School Fencing

   High School Fencing has had ups and downs over the years. Fencing was
   once part of many school's physical education curriculum, and many
   schools had clubs that would sometimes hold inter-school tournaments.
   In more recent years in the United States fencing all but vanished from
   physical education classes. This has been attributed to worries about
   teaching children to use weapons or that it teaches violence, plus the
   expense in equipment and a need comply with US Title X, as well as
   other reasons. Fencing remained a club sport at a few schools until
   recently, when there has been an increase in High School fencing clubs
   and tournaments.

   High school fencing season is generally in winter. Fencing in most
   places is not sanctioned by the state and therefore rules and
   competition rules vary.

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