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Eastern Orthodox Church

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements,
traditions and organizations


   Part of the series on
   Eastern Christianity
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   History
   Byzantine Empire
   Crusades
   Ecumenical council
   Great Schism

   Traditions
   Assyrian Church of the East
   Oriental Orthodoxy
   Syriac Christianity
   Eastern Orthodox Church
   Eastern Rite Catholics

   Liturgy and Worship
   Divine Liturgy
   Iconography

   Theology
   Apophaticism - Filioque clause
   Miaphysitism - Monophysitism
   Nestorianism - Panentheism
   Theosis

   The Eastern Orthodox Church is a religious organization which sees
   itself as the continuation of the original Christian body, founded by
   Jesus and his Twelve Apostles. The present church links its hierarchy
   historically directly back to the apostles through the process
   described in the Bible as the laying on of hands (Acts 8:17, 2 Timothy
   1:6, Hebrews 6:2) otherwise referred to as Apostolic Succession. The
   church keeps strict records of these Episcopal pedigrees for each of
   its bishops (example: see List of Ecumenical Patriarchs of
   Constantinople). It also claims to have preserved the sacred traditions
   given to the members of the Church through letter and word of mouth. In
   comparing its current organization to the early church it believes the
   only changes have been in administrative complexity and in the
   “clarification” of its doctrines. Its theological beliefs (once
   defined) have remained the same. These beliefs have been adopted by
   numerous peoples and nations who have each added their particular
   flavor to church practices (without changing its beliefs), while at the
   same time remaining unified worldwide. Despite the various labels
   applied to it, it officially calls itself the One, Holy, Catholic, and
   Apostolic Church. It currently encompasses national jurisdictions such
   as the Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox and other Churches (see Eastern
   Orthodox Church organization). It is sometimes referred to as the
   Orthodox Catholic Church to emphasize its counter claim to The Roman
   Catholic Church as being the Catholic Church, but is more often known
   simply as Orthodoxy or the Orthodox Church.

   On the basis of the numbers of adherents, Eastern Orthodoxy is the
   second largest Christian communion in the world after the Roman
   Catholic Church, and the third largest grouping overall after
   Protestantism. There are approximately 220 million Eastern Orthodox
   Christians worldwide. Eastern Orthodoxy is the largest single religious
   faith in Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Republic of
   Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, but
   there are also large Orthodox communities in Africa, Asia, Australia,
   North America, and South America.

Terminology

   The term orthodox is Greek and means Correct Worship. It is a title the
   Church adopted during the Great Schism to distinguish itself from the
   Roman Catholics. The term "Orthodox", without reference to geographical
   location, is conventionally used by all members of the church to
   highlight what they see as their full adherence to the pronouncements
   of the seven ecumenical councils and their absolute reluctance to break
   with holy tradition.

   Although geographical or ethnic designators such as "Eastern", "Greek"
   or "Russian" are in common use, the Orthodox Church sees itself as a
   single unified body, encompassing both the living and the dead. It
   therefore properly uses the Greek term “Catholic” to describe itself.

   In the remainder of this article, for convenience of reference, the
   expressions "Orthodox" and "the Church" refer to "Eastern Orthodox"
   unless the context indicates otherwise.

Organization

   The basic administrative structure of the church is simple. Parishes,
   ideally, are small with their members seeking spiritual guidance from
   monastics and the clergy. Parish priests usually know their flock quite
   well, having intimate knowledge of their problems through the mystery
   of confession. Priests teach and administer to their flock and perform
   the various services of the church in place of bishops. Bishops
   likewise advise and govern the priests, and through them, their flock.
   A single bishop may have any number of priests under his charge. While
   bishops do not interfere in each others territories they are usually
   organized into democratic councils (Synods) in order to administer
   their jurisdiction. Abbots and abbesses have similar control over their
   monasteries. There is no single leader in the church. No pope. All
   bishops are equal. The Patriarch of Constantinople has the distinction
   of acting as “president” of any ecumenical council, should one be
   called (the last one was in 787AD), for this he is called “First Among
   Equals”.

   Because of this structure the spiritually undivided church can be
   administratively divided into various autocephalous (that is,
   self-governing) organizations with their own episcopal hierarchies,
   hence the terms Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox,
   etc. These groups, in general, recognize each other as being within the
   body of the Church (i.e. canonical).

   There are a number of churches that are not considered to be part of
   this group, who have, for one reason or another been excised from the
   church and should not be confused with its members.
     * The Oriental Orthodox represent a branch of the original church
       that rejected the pronouncements of the Council of Chalcedon in 451
       AD
     * The Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church separated in 1054 AD
       over issues that included the Pope being the Supreme authority in
       the church and the addition to the creed of the “Filioque” clause.
     * The Byzantine Catholics and/or the Eastern Rite Catholics, who
       recognize the Pope.

Beliefs

The Trinity

   Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is both three and one
   (triune): Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Holy Trinity is three
   unconfused, distinct, divine persons ( hypostases), with no overlap or
   modality among them, who share one divine essence (ousia)—uncreated,
   immaterial and eternal. In discussing God's relationship to his
   creation a distinction is made between God's eternal essence and
   uncreated energies.

   The Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom the Son is
   begotten eternally and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds
   eternally. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized
   in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.

Sin, salvation and the Incarnation

   Adam and Eve sinned when they disobeyed God in the Garden of Eden, thus
   introducing into mankind the disease of sin. This event, the Fall of
   Man, altered the dynamic state of humanity's existence, making him
   prone to sin, which is an ontological separation from God. Although it
   is now possible for human beings to choose not to sin, their tendency
   is toward it. The consequence of the Fall is the introduction of death
   to humanity; it is death--and the fear of it--which is seen to be the
   progenitor of man's sins. All mankind is thus in need of salvation,
   which is the process of restoring man to the pure state in which he was
   created and growing him even beyond that toward perfection. This
   process, termed theosis ( Greek, "deification" or "divinization"), is
   eternal and is the continual deepening of communion between God and
   man, a unification without fusion of the human person with the divine
   persons.

   The second person of the Trinity, the Son of God, thus became genuine
   man in order to accomplish salvation for humanity, which is incapable
   of doing so on its own. Eastern Orthodox theology teaches that when the
   Son of God became the man Jesus Christ, he took on human nature while
   keeping his divine nature. He is thus one person (hypostasis) with two
   natures. Orthodox soteriology is therefore aimed at the bringing of man
   by grace to become what Christ is by nature, that is, being holy. This
   process neither sacrifices monotheism nor the eternal distinction
   between the created and the uncreated, because it is eternal and there
   is no final arrival point.

   Progress toward salvation is accomplished in the earthly life only by
   God's grace, with which man must freely cooperate. The free cooperation
   of man includes prayer, asceticism, participation in the sacraments,
   following the commandments of Christ, and above all, repentance of sin.
   Salvation is thus for the whole human person, involving both the body
   and the soul.

The Resurrection

   The Resurrection of Christ is the central event in the liturgical year
   of the Orthodox Church and is understood in literal terms as a real
   historical event. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died,
   descended into Hell, rescued all the souls held there through man's
   original sin; and then, because Hell could not restrain the infinite
   God, rose from the dead, thus saving all mankind. Through these events,
   he released mankind from the bonds of Hell and then came back to the
   living as man and God. That each individual human may partake of this
   immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection,
   is the main promise held out by God in his New Testament with mankind,
   according to Orthodox Christian tradition.

   Every holy day of the Orthodox liturgical year relates to the
   Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday of the year is
   dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection; Orthodox believers refrain
   from kneeling or prostrating on Sundays in observance thereof. In the
   liturgical commemorations of the Passion of Christ during Holy Week
   there are frequent allusions to the ultimate victory at its completion.

The Bible, Holy Tradition, and the patristic consensus

   The Orthodox Church considers itself to be the original Church founded
   by Christ and His apostles. The faith taught by Jesus to the apostles,
   given life by the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, and passed down to future
   generations uncorrupted, is known as Holy Tradition. The primary
   witness to Holy Tradition is the Bible, texts written or approved by
   the apostles to record revealed truth and the early history of the
   Church. Because of the Bible's apostolic origin, it is regarded as
   central to the life of the Church.

   The Bible is always interpreted within the context of Holy Tradition,
   which gave birth to it and canonized it. Orthodox Christians maintain
   that belief in a doctrine of sola scriptura would be to take the Bible
   out of the world in which it arose. Orthodox Christians therefore
   believe that the only way to understand the Bible correctly is within
   the Orthodox Church.

   Other witnesses to Holy Tradition include the liturgy of the Church,
   its iconography, the rulings of the Ecumenical councils, and the
   writings of the Church Fathers. From the consensus of the Fathers
   (consensus patrum) one may enter more deeply and understand more fully
   the Church's life. Individual Fathers are not looked upon as
   infallible, but rather the whole consensus of them together will give
   one a proper understanding of the Bible and Christian doctrine.

The Theotokos and the saints

   The Theotokos of Vladimir, one of the most venerated of Orthodox
   Christian icons of the Virgin Mary.
   Enlarge
   The Theotokos of Vladimir, one of the most venerated of Orthodox
   Christian icons of the Virgin Mary.

   The saints are regarded as those who have reliably finished the course
   of their lives in the path of theosis. Those that are known to the
   Church are glorified ( canonized) by incorporating their lives into the
   Church's liturgical life, a recognition of Christ in them. They are
   venerated (shown great respect and love) but not worshiped, for worship
   is due to God alone. In showing the saints this love and requesting
   their prayers, it is believed by the Orthodox that they thus assist in
   the process of salvation for others.

   Newly baptized Orthodox Christians are usually given the name of a
   saint, both to place the new Christian in the community of the Church
   and also to ask for that saint to pray especially for that person's
   salvation.

   Preeminent among the saints is the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos
   ("birthgiver to God"). The Theotokos was chosen by God and freely
   cooperated in that choice to be the mother of Jesus Christ, the
   God-man. She did not give birth to his divinity, but rather to one
   person whose two natures were united at his miraculous virgin
   conception. She is thus called Theotokos as an affirmation of the
   divinity of the one to whom she gave birth. Because of her unique place
   in salvation history, she is honored above all other saints and
   especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through
   her.

   Because of the holiness of the lives of the saints, their bodies and
   physical items connected with them are regarded by the Church as also
   holy. Many miracles have been reported throughout history connected
   with the saints' relics, often including healing from disease and
   injury. The veneration and miraculous nature of relics continues from
   Biblical times.

Eschatology

   The doctrine of the Eastern Orthodox Church is amillennialist.
   Amillennialism teaches that the Kingdom of God will not be physically
   established on earth throughout the "millennium", but rather
     * that Christ is presently reigning from heaven, seated at the right
       hand of God the Father,
     * that Christ also is and will remain with the Christian church until
       the end of the world, as he promised at the Ascension,
     * that at Pentecost, the millennium began, as is shown by Peter using
       the prophecies of Joel, about the coming of the kingdom, to explain
       what was happening,
     * and that, therefore the Christian church and its spread of the good
       news is Christ's kingdom.

   However, at least during the first four centuries, millennialism was
   normative in both East and West. Tertullian, Commodian, Lactantius,
   Methodius, and Apollinaris of Laodicea all advocated premillennial
   doctrine. (PDF file) In addition, according to religious scholar Rev.
   and Dr. Francis Nigel Lee the following is true, "Justin's 'Occasional
   Chiliasm' sui generis which was strongly anti-pretribulationistic was
   followed possibly by Pothinus in A.D. 175 and more probably (around
   185) by Irenaeus -- although Justin Martyr, discussing his own
   premillennial beliefs in his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Chapter 110,
   observed that they were not necessary to Christians:

          I admitted to you formerly, that I and many others are of this
          opinion, and [believe] that such will take place, as you
          assuredly are aware; but, on the other hand, I signified to you
          that many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true
          Christians, think otherwise.

   Around 220, there were some similar influences on Tertullian though
   only with very important and extremely optimistic (if not perhaps even
   postmillennial modifications and implications). On the other hand,
   'Christian Chiliastic' ideas were indeed advocated in 240 by Commodian;
   in 250 by the Egyptian Bishop Nepos in his Refutation of Allegorists;
   in 260 by the almost unknown Coracion; and in 310 by Lactantius.

   Melito of Sardis is frequently listed as a second century proponent of
   premillennialism. . The support usually given for the supposition is
   that Jerome [Comm. on Ezek. 36 ] and Gennadius [De Dogm. Eccl., Ch. 52]
   both affirm that he was a decided millenarian.”. However, such
   prominent theologians as Clement of Alexandria, Augustine of Hippo,
   Eusebius of Caesarea, Origen and others, taught against pre-millennial
   views. Chiliasm was condemned as a heresy in the 4th century by the
   Church, which included the phrase whose Kingdom shall have no end in
   the Nicene Creed in order to rule out the idea of a Kingdom of God
   which would last for only 1000 literal years. Despite some writers'
   belief in millennialism, it was a decided minority view, as expressed
   in the nearly universal condemnation of the doctrine.

Traditions

Art and architecture

Church buildings

   The church building has many symbolic meanings; perhaps the oldest and
   most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in Noah's)
   in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations. Because of
   this, most Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular
   shape, especially for churches with large choirs is cruciform or
   cross-shaped. Architectural patterns may vary in shape and complexity,
   with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars
   (Liturgy may only be performed once a day on any particular altar), but
   in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same.

   The Church building is divided into three main parts: the narthex
   (entrance hall), the nave and the sanctuary (also called the altar or
   holy place).
   An illustration of the Traditional Interior of an Orthodox Church
   Enlarge
   An illustration of the Traditional Interior of an Orthodox Church

   Narthex: The narthex is the connection between the Church and the
   outside world and for this reason catechumens (pre-baptized Orthodox)
   and non-Orthodox stand here (note: the tradition of allowing only
   confirmed Orthodox into the nave of the church has for the most part
   fallen into disuse). In monastic churches it is usual for the lay
   people visiting the monastery to stand in the narthex while the monks
   or nuns stand in the nave. Separating the narthex from the nave are the
   Royal Doors (from the time of the Byzantine Empire, when the emperor
   would enter the main body of Hagia Sophia, the Church of Holy Wisdom,
   through these doors and proceed up to the altar to partake of the
   Eucharist). On either side of this portal are large brass candlestands
   called menalia which represent the pillars of fire which went before
   the Hebrews into the promised land.

   Nave: The nave is the main body of the church where the people stand
   during the services. In most Orthodox churches there are no pews but
   rather stacidia (like a high-armed chair with foldup seat—its arm rests
   are high enough to be used for support while standing; these are
   usually found along the walls. Traditionally there is no sitting during
   services with the only exceptions being during the reading of the
   Psalms, and the priest's sermon. The people stand before God. However
   because of the influence of Catholic and Protestant practices in
   western countries it is not uncommon to find pews and kneelers in more
   modern church structures.
   The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia
   Enlarge
   The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia

   The walls are normally covered from floor to ceiling with icons or wall
   paintings of saints, their lives, and stories from the Bible. Because
   the church building is a direct extension of its Jewish roots where men
   and women stand separately, the Orthodox Church continues this
   practice, with men standing on the right and women on the left. Because
   of this arrangement it is emphasized that we are all equal before God
   (equal distance from the altar), and that the man is not superior to
   the woman. In many modern churches this traditional practice has been
   altered and families stand together.

   Above the nave in the dome of the church is the icon of Christ the
   Almighty (Pantokratoros, "Ruler of All"). Directly hanging below the
   dome (In more traditional churches) is usually a kind of circular
   chandelier with depictions of the saints and apostles, called the
   horos.

   Iconostasis: Traditionally called the templon, it is a screen or wall
   between the nave and the sanctuary, which is covered with icons. There
   will normally be three doors, one in the middle and one on either side.
   The central one is traditionally called the Beautiful Gate and is only
   used by the clergy. There are times when this gate is closed during the
   service and a curtain is drawn. The doors on either side are called the
   Deacons' Doors or Angel Doors as they often have depicted on them the
   Archangels Michael and Gabriel. These doors are used by deacons and
   servers to enter the sanctuary. Typically, to the left of the Beautiful
   Gate (as seen from the altar) is the icon of Christ, then the icon of
   St John the Baptist; to the right the icon of the Theotokos, always
   shown holding Christ; and then the icon of the saint to whom the church
   is dedicated (i.e., the patron). There are often other icons on the
   iconostasis but these vary from church to church. Above and behind the
   iconostasis (if the iconostasis does not reach the ceiling) is the
   Platytera ton Ouranon ("more spacious than the heavens"), the icon of
   Virgin Mary with Christ blessing all. Oil lamps burn before all the
   icons.
   The Holy Trinity Cathedral in Tbilisi, Georgia is one of the largest
   Eastern Orthodox Churches in the world. Construction lasted approx.
   five years and was completed in 2005.
   Enlarge
   The Holy Trinity Cathedral in Tbilisi, Georgia is one of the largest
   Eastern Orthodox Churches in the world. Construction lasted approx.
   five years and was completed in 2005.

   Sanctuary: The area including the altar table at its centre, behind the
   iconostasis: it is the "Holy of Holies" of the church. The church, if
   at all possible, is always aligned with the altar facing East. The
   priest also faces East when before the holy table (away from the
   congregation), offering prayers for the people to God and then coming
   out through the Beautiful Gate to give God's good news (Gospel) to the
   people. To the left of the altar table will be the Prosthesis table
   (table of preparation) where the bread and wine are prepared for the
   Eucharist before the Divine Liturgy begins.

Icons

   A fairly elaborate Orthodox Christian prayer corner as would be found
   in a private home
   Enlarge
   A fairly elaborate Orthodox Christian prayer corner as would be found
   in a private home

   The term Icon comes from the Greek word eikon, which simply means
   image. Icons are replete with symbolism meant to convey far more
   meaning than simply the identity of the person depicted, and it is for
   this reason that Orthodox iconography has become an exacting science of
   copying older icons rather than an opportunity for artistic expression.
   The Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary
   were painted by Luke the Evangelist. The personal, idiosyncratic and
   creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely
   lacking in Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, when Russian
   icon painting was strongly influenced by religious paintings and
   engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek icon
   painting also began to take on a strong romantic western influence for
   a period and the difference between some Orthodox icons and western
   religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a strong
   trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic
   representations.

   Statues (three dimensional depictions) are almost non-existent within
   the Orthodox Church. This is partly due to the rejection of the
   previous pagan Greek age of idol worship and partly because Icons are
   meant to show the spiritual nature of man, not the sensual earthly
   body. Icons are not considered by the Orthodox to be objects of
   worship. Their usage is justified by the following logic: When the
   immaterial God was all that we had, no material depiction was possible
   and therefore blasphemous even to contemplate; however, biblical
   prohibitions against material depictions have been altered by Christ
   (as God) taking on material form, thus allowing a material depiction.
   Also, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the
   individual shown, just as with a portrait or photograph of a loved one.
   As Saint Basil famously proclaimed, honour or veneration of the icon
   always passes to its prototype. Following this reasoning through, our
   veneration of the glorified human Saint made in God's image, is always
   a veneration of the divine image, and hence God as foundational
   prototype.

   Large icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover
   the inside structure completely. Orthodox homes often likewise have
   icons hanging on the wall, usually together on an eastern facing wall,
   and in a central location where the family can pray together.
   Our Lady of St. Theodore, the protectress of Kostroma, following the
   same Byzantine "Tender Mercy" type
   Enlarge
   Our Lady of St. Theodore, the protectress of Kostroma, following the
   same Byzantine "Tender Mercy" type

   Icons are often illuminated with a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for
   candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural
   and burn cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making icons
   visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps
   symbolize the Light of the World which is Christ.

   Tales of miraculous icons that moved, spoke, cried, bled, or gushed
   fragrant myrrh are not uncommon, though it has always been considered
   that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful
   involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds. Some miraculous
   icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become
   objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept. As
   several orthodox theologians and saints have explored in the past, the
   icons miraculous nature is found not in the material, but in the glory
   of the saint who is depicted in the icon. The icon is a window, in the
   words of St Paul Florensky, that literally participates in the glory of
   what it represents! This is why several icons bleed myrrh, which is a
   physical manifestation of the uncreated holy spirit.

   Some of the most venerated Russian Orthodox icons are treated in
   separate articles.

   See also Category:Eastern Orthodox icons.
   The Eastern Orthodox Cross; from PressWriter Symbols font.
   Enlarge
   The Eastern Orthodox Cross; from PressWriter Symbols font.

   The Cross: The Byzantine (sometimes Russian) style cross (seen right)
   is usually shown with a small top crossbar representing the sign that
   Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head, however, instead of the
   Latin acronym INRI (Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum, meaning "Jesus of
   Nazareth, King of the Jews") the Greek INBI or its Slavonic equivalent
   is used. It is not uncommon, however, for this to be replaced by the
   phrase "The King of Glory" in order to answer Pilate's mocking
   statement with Christ's affirmation, "My Kingdom is not of this world".
   There is also on many Orthodox depictions of the cross a bottom
   slanting bar. This appears for a number of reasons. First of all, there
   is enough evidence to show that there was a small wooden platform for
   the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Christ's
   case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail
   each in order to prolong the torture of the cross. Evidence for this
   idea comes mainly from two sources, biblical (that in order to cause
   the victim to die faster their legs were broken so they could not
   support their weight and would strangle) and tradition (all early
   depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with
   feet on top with single nail). It has also been pointed out that the
   nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern
   secular art would not support the weight and would tear through, a
   platform for the feet would relieve this problem. The bottom bar is
   slanted for two reasons, to represent the very real agony which Christ
   experienced on the cross (a refutation of Docetism) and to signify that
   the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the
   left did not.

   In Unicode, this cross is U+2626 (☦).

The Services

   The services of the church are properly conducted each day following a
   rigid, but constantly changing annual schedule (i.e. Parts of the
   service remain the same while others change depending on the day of the
   year). Services are conducted in the church by the clergy. Services
   cannot properly be conducted by a single person, but must have at least
   one other person present (i.e. a Priest and a Chanter). Usually, all of
   the services are conducted on a daily basis only in monasteries while
   parish churches might only do the services on the weekend. The services
   can be conducted at their traditional times of the day, or on special
   feast days served all together (Agripnia) from late at night till early
   the next morning. Traditionally the services follow the following
   schedule:

   Vespers – (Greek Hesperinos) Sundown, the beginning of the liturgical
   day.

   Compline (Greek Apodipnon, lit. "After-supper") – After the evening
   meal prior to bedtime.

   Matins (Greek Orthros) – First service of the morning. Usually starts
   before sunrise.

   Hours – First, Third, Sixth, and Ninth – Sung either at their
   appropriate times, or in aggregate at other customary times of
   convenience. If the latter, The First Hour is sung immediately
   following Orthros, the Third and Sixth prior to the Divine Liturgy, and
   the Ninth prior to Vespers.

   These services are conceived of as sanctifying the times during which
   they are celebrated. They consist to a large degree of readings from
   the Psalter with introductory prayers, troparia, and other prayers
   surrounding them. The Psalms are so arranged that when all the services
   are celebrated the entire Psalter is read through in their course once
   a week, and twice a week during Great Lent when they are celebrated in
   an extended form.

   The Divine Liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist. Although it
   usually stands between the 6th and 9th hours, it is considered to occur
   outside the normal time of the world and is not a sanctification of it.
   It is also common, on special feast days of the church to celebrate all
   the services consecutively and to do this from late in the evening on
   the eve of the feast to early in the morning on the day of the feast
   itself. This variation is called Agripnia and can last many hours.
   Because of its festal nature it is usually followed by a breakfast
   feast shared together by the congregation. Although it may be
   celebrated on most days, there has never been a tradition of its daily
   celebration in parish churches.

   Liturgies may not be celebrated Monday through Friday during the
   penetential season of Great Lent due to their festive character. Since
   intensified prayer and more frequent reception of communion is
   nevertheless considered particularly beneficial at that time, the
   Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts is often celebrated on Wednesdays
   and Fridays of that period. This is a solemn Vespers combined with the
   distribution of Eucharistic elements consecrated and reserved from the
   previous Sunday.

Chanting

   Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist
   in part of a dialog between the clergy and the people (often
   represented by the choir or the Psaltis (Cantor). In each case the text
   is sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing
   is read in a normal speaking voice with the exception of the homily if
   one is given. The church has developed eight Modes or Tones, (see
   Octoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of
   year, feast days, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are
   numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and
   these vary a great deal between cultures. It is common, especially in
   the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to
   mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian,
   etc.

Incense

   As part of the legacy handed down from its Jewish roots incense is used
   during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is burned as an
   offering of worship to God even as it was done in the Jewish temple.
   Traditionally, the base of the incense used is the resin of Boswellia
   thurifera, also known as frankincense, but the resin of fir trees has
   been used as well. It is usually mixed with various floral essential
   oils giving it a sweet smell. Incense represents the sweetness of the
   prayers of the saints rising up to God (Psalm 141:2, Revelation 5:8,
   Revelation 8:4). The incense is burned in an ornate golden censer that
   hangs at the end of Three chains representing the Trinity. In the Greek
   tradition there are 12 bells hung along these chains representing the
   12 apostles; the Slavic churches usually do not have bells. The censer
   is used (swung back and forth) by the priest/deacon to venerate all
   four sides of the altar, the holy gifts, the clergy, the icons, the
   congregation, and the church structure itself.

The Mysteries

   The Mysteries within the Orthodox Church, unlike the Roman Catholic
   Sacraments, are more numerous (than 7) and less analyzed. An Orthodox
   definition of mystery might be any action in which a person connects to
   God. Communion is the most prominent (the direct physical union with
   Christ’s Body and Blood), followed by baptism, confession, marriage,
   and so forth; but the term also properly applies to act as simple as
   lighting a candle, burning incense, and praying or asking God to bless
   one's food.

Baptism

   Baptism is the mystery which transforms the old sinful man into the
   new, pure man. The old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a
   clean slate is given. Through baptism one is united to the Body of
   Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church. During the service
   water is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three
   times in the name of the Holy Trinity. This is considered to be a death
   of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of
   Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his
   resurrection. Usually a new name is given, which becomes the person's
   name. Because it is believed this is a new person and all previous
   commitments are void; if the person was formerly married, they must now
   be married again.

   Children of Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after
   birth. Traditionally, converts from other religions, even other
   Christians must be properly baptised into the Orthodox Church. However,
   local practices vary and are largely dependant on the bishop. If the
   bishop chooses to exercise "economia", such converts may be received by
   baptism, chrismation, or just by confession of the Orthodox faith (this
   practice is usually allowed only if the person is too ill to be
   properly baptized).

   Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and
   priests; however, in emergencies any Orthodox Christian can baptize.

   The service of baptism used in Orthodox churches has remained largely
   unchanged for over 1500 years. This fact is witnessed to by St. Cyril
   of Jerusalem (d. 386), who, in his Discourse on the Sacrament of
   Baptism, describes the service in much the same way as is currently in
   use.

Chrismation

   Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a
   person, who has been baptized is granted the gift of the Holy Spirit
   through anointing with Holy Chrism. It is normally given immediately
   after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive
   lapsed members of the Orthodox Church. As baptism is a person's
   participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so chrismation
   is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at
   Pentecost.

   A baptized and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the
   Church, and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.

   Chrism may be blessed by any bishop, but this is usually done only by
   the chief hierarch of an autocephalous church during Holy Week. (Some
   autocephalous churches get their chrism from others.) Anointing with it
   substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament.

Fasting

   Fasting is a very important practice in the Orthodox Church. Fasting is
   never seen as a way to earn the believer "points" or the right to
   salvation; it is instead an exercise in self-denial and Christian
   obedience that serves to rid the believer of his or her passions (what
   most modern people would call "addictions"). These often low-intensity
   and hard-to-detect addictions to food, television or other
   entertainments, sex, or any kind of self-absorbed pleasure-seeking are
   seen as some of the most significant obstacles for man seeking
   closeness to God. Through struggling with fasting the believer comes
   face to face with the reality of his condition — the starting point for
   genuine repentance according to the Eastern Orthodox tradition.

   Fasting is also never looked on as a hardship or punishment but rather
   as a great privilege and joy, although it can be very difficult. Those
   who for medical reasons (diabetes, for example) cannot fast, often see
   themselves as missing a great spiritual opportunity. Fasting typically
   involves differing levels of abstinence depending on the day or season
   and ranges from a complete fast from all food and drink to abstinence
   from all animal products (meat, dairy, eggs, etc.), olive oil, and
   wine.

   Although the traditional proscription is against olive oil, it is often
   interpreted as excluding all vegetable oils.

   Shellfish is not included in the proscription against meat;
   accordingly, shellfish is permitted during fasts. (So-called "
   imitation crabmeat" is not Lenten fare as it is made not made from
   shellfish but, rather from fish–generally pollock.) Although shellfish
   is permitted, fasting Orthodox Christians would also need to take into
   account the overarching principles of denial and moderation; thus,
   feasts of lobster and crab (like feasts on other luxurious Lenten
   foods) during fasts could still be contrary to the spirit of fasting.

   Vegetable oils are permitted on certain days and weeks of the fast as
   is wine. Thus, most fasting guidelines resemble a vegan diet with all
   cooking done simply with water but no oil. In addition to restrictions
   on food, it is generally understood that married couples abstain from
   sexual relations during a fast (see 1 Corinthians 7:5) and it is often
   recommended that entertainments or amusements be eliminated altogether
   during the stricter periods of fasting.

   The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox
   Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesiastical
   calendar. There are four major fasting periods during the year. They
   are:
     * The Nativity Fast (Advent or Winter Lent) which is the 40 days
       preceding the Nativity of Christ ( Christmas).
     * Great Lent which consists of the 6 weeks (40 Days) preceding Palm
       Sunday, and Great Week (Holy Week) which precedes Pascha ( Easter).
     * The Apostles' Fast which varies in length from 2 to 6 weeks on the
       Old Calendar. It begins on Monday following the first Sunday after
       Pentecost and extends to the feast day of Saints Peter and Paul on
       June 29th. Since the date of Pentecost depends on that of Pascha,
       and Pascha is determined on the Julian Calendar, this fast can
       disappear completely under New Calendar observance. This is one of
       the objections raised to the New Calendar.
     * The two-week long Fast preceding the Dormition of the Theotokos
       (repose of The Virgin Mary).

   Orthodox Christians also fast on every Wednesday in commemoration of
   Christ's betrayal by Judas Iscariot, and on every Friday in
   commemoration of his crucifixion. Monastics often include Mondays as a
   fast day in imitation of the Angels who are commemorated on that day in
   the weekly cycle, since they neither eat nor drink. Orthodox Christians
   who expect to receive Eucharist on a certain day do not eat or drink at
   all from midnight of that day until after taking communion; a similar
   total fast is expected to be kept on Great Friday and Holy Saturday for
   those who can do so. There are other individual days observed as fasts
   no matter what day of the week they fall, such as the Beheading of St.
   John the Baptist on August 29 and the Exaltation of the Holy Cross on
   September 14.

   Strict fasting is canonically forbidden on Saturdays and Sundays due to
   the festal character of the Sabbath and Resurrectional observances
   respectively. On those days wine and oil are therefore permitted even
   if abstention from them would be otherwise called for. Holy Saturday is
   the only Saturday of the year where a strict fast is kept.

   There are four weeks during the year where there is no fasting even on
   Wednesday and Friday. The weeks following Pascha, Pentecost, and the
   Nativity are "fast-free" in celebration of the feasts. There is also no
   fasting for week following the Sunday of the Publican and the Pharisee,
   one of the preparatory Sundays for Great Lent. This is done so that no
   one can imitate the Pharisee's boast that he fasts for two days out of
   the week, for that one week at least.

   The number of fast days varies each year, but in general the Orthodox
   Christian can expect to spend over half the year fasting at some level
   of strictness.

   It is considered a greater sin to advertise one's fasting than to not
   participate in the fast. Fasting is a purely personal communication
   between the Orthodox and God, and in fact has no place whatsoever in
   the public life of the Orthodox Church. If one has responsibilities
   that cannot be fulfilled because of fasting, then it is perfectly
   permissible not to fast.

Almsgiving

   " Almsgiving" refers to any charitable giving of material resources to
   those in need. Along with prayer and fasting, it is considered a pillar
   of the personal spiritual practices of the Orthodox Christian
   tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of
   fasting, when the Orthodox believer is expected to share the monetary
   savings from his or her decreased consumption with those in need. As
   with fasting, bragging about the amounts given for charity is
   considered anywhere from extremely rude to sinful.

Holy Communion

   The Eucharist is at the centre of Orthodox Christianity. In practice,
   it is the partaking of bread and wine in the midst of the Divine
   Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to
   be the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ Jesus. The Eastern Orthodox
   Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the
   detail that the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches have in the
   West. The doctrine of transubstantiation was formulated after the Great
   Schism took place, and the Orthodox churches have never formally
   affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a mystery
   and sacrament.

   Communion is given only to baptized, chrismated Orthodox Christians who
   have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession (if of the age of
   reason, see below). The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon
   directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. From baptism
   young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy
   Communion.

   It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is
   dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the
   most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul.
   However, many spiritual advisors advocate frequent reception as long as
   it is done in the proper spirit and not casually, with full preparation
   and discernment. Frequent reception is more common now than in recent
   centuries.

Repentance

   Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who
   wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their
   original baptisms, confess their sins to God before their spiritual
   guide (often a priest, but can be anyone, male or female, who has a
   blessing to hear confessions), who offers spiritual guidance to assist
   the individual in overcoming their sin. The penitent then has his or
   her parish priest read the prayer of repentance over them, asking God
   for forgiveness and confirming it with a blessing. Sin is not viewed by
   the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a
   legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but
   rather as a mistake made by the individual with the opportunity for
   spiritual growth and development. An act of Penance, if the spiritual
   guide requires it, is never formulaic, but rather is directed toward
   the individual and their particular problem, as a means of establishing
   a deeper understanding of the mistake made, and how to affect its cure.
   Though it sounds harsh, temporary excommunication is fairly common (The
   Orthodox require a fairly high level of purity in order to commune,
   therefore certain sins make it necessary for the individual to refrain
   from communing for a period). Because confession and repentance are
   required in order to raise the individual to a level capable of
   communing (though no one is truly worthy), and because full
   participatory membership is granted to infants, it is not unusual for
   even small children to confess; though the scope of their culpability
   is far less than an older child, still their opportunity for spiritual
   growth remains the same.

Marriage

   Orthodox Marriage is seen as an act of God in which he joins two
   believers (a man and a woman) into one. Procreation is not seen as the
   only reason for marriage though it is referenced throughout the
   standard Orthodox Wedding Service. The fact that intimacy between
   married adults creates a loving bond is paramount, and that union
   between the two is reflective of an "ultimate union with God." Marriage
   is understood to be an eternal union of love that, according to some
   Orthodox theologians (particularly Meyendorff) continues into the
   heavenly kingdom. These theologians, while holding that marriages
   aren't formed in the afterlife (Matt 22:30), affirms that the marriage
   bond sacramentally formed on earth is present in the afterlife, as no
   sacramental actions can be undone. This belief in the eternality of
   marriage keeps many Orthodox Christians from getting divorces in
   traditional Orthodox countries. The Church has never dogmatized on the
   question of marriage's eternality, however.

   The Mystery of Marriage in the Orthodox Church has two distinct parts:
   The Betrothal and The Crowning. The Betrothal includes: The exchange of
   the rings, the procession, the declaration of intent and the lighting
   of candles. Then follows the Crowning, the epistle, the gospel, the
   Blessing of the Common Cup and the Dance of Isaiah, and then the
   Removal of the Crowns. Finally there is the Greeting of the Couple.

   Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church recognizes the
   reality of divorce (though does not "grant" divorces) and allows
   divorced men and women to remarry under specific circumstances
   (infidelity, apostasy, etc.) as judged by a Spiritual Court or bishop.
   It is regarded as a great tragedy, however, and a second marriage
   normally requires special permission from a bishop. A second wedding is
   always performed in the context of repentance on the part of the
   previously married party, a fact reflected in the ceremony.

   A peculiarity of the Orthodox wedding ceremony is that there is no
   exchange of vows. There is a set expectation of the obligations
   incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have
   privately to each other are their responsibility to keep.

Monasticism

   All Orthodox Christians are expected to participate in at least some
   ascetical works, in response to the commandment of Christ to "come,
   take up the cross, and follow me." ( Mark 10:21 and elsewhere) They are
   therefore all called to imitate, in one way or another, Christ himself
   who denied himself to the extent of literally taking up the cross on
   the way to his voluntary self-sacrifice. However, laypeople are not
   expected to live in extreme asceticism since this is close to
   impossible while undertaking the normal responsibilities of worldly
   life. Those who wish to do this therefore separate themselves from the
   world and live as monastics: monks and nuns. As ascetics par
   excellence, using the allegorical weapons of prayer and fasting in
   spiritual warfare against their passions, monastics hold a very special
   and important place in the Church. This kind of life is often seen as
   incompatible with any kind of worldly activity including that which is
   normally regarded as virtuous. Social work, schoolteaching, and other
   such work is therefore usually left to laypeople.
   The Schema worn by Orthodox Monks.
   Enlarge
   The Schema worn by Orthodox Monks.

   There are three main types of monastics. Those who live in monasteries
   under a common rule are coenobitic. Each monastery may formulate its
   own rule, and although there are no religious orders in Orthodoxy some
   respected monastic centers such as Mount Athos are highly influential.
   Eremitic monks, or hermits, are those who live solitary lives. Hermits
   might be associated with a larger monastery but living in seclusion
   some distance from the main compound, and in such cases the monastery
   will see to their physical needs while disturbing them as little as
   possible. They often live in the most extreme conditions and practice
   the strictest asceticism. In order to become a hermit, it is necessary
   for the monk or nun to prove themselves to be worthy enough to their
   superior clergy. In between are those in semi-eremetic communities, or
   sketes, where one or two monks share each of a group of nearby
   dwellings under their own rules and only gather together in the central
   chapel, or kyriakon, for liturgical observances.

   The spiritual insight gained from their ascetical struggles make
   monastics preferred for missionary activity. Bishops are often chosen
   from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic
   tonsure before their consecrations.

   Many (but not all) Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries,
   combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the
   community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the
   priesthood are called hieromonk (priest-monk); monks who have been
   ordained to the deaconate are called hierodeacon (deacon-monk). Not all
   monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish
   churches thus practising "monasticism in the world".

   For the Orthodox, Father is the correct form of address for monks who
   have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices
   and Rassophores are addressed as Brother. Similarly, Mother is the
   correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured to the rank of
   Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as
   Sister. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts
   and are therefore also called monachoi (monastics) or the feminine
   plural form in Greek, monachai, and their common living space is called
   a monastery.

Holy Orders

   Orthodox clergy at All Saints Antiochian Orthodox Church, Raleigh, NC
   (L to R): priest, two deacons, bishop
   Enlarge
   Orthodox clergy at All Saints Antiochian Orthodox Church, Raleigh, NC
   (L to R): priest, two deacons, bishop

   Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the
   leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as episkopoi
   (overseers, plural of episkopos, overseer — Gr. ἐπίσκοπος), which
   became " bishop" in English. The other ordained roles are presbyter
   (Gr. πρεσβύτερος, elder), which became "prester" and then " priest" in
   English, and diakonos (Gr. διάκονος, servant), which became " deacon"
   in English (see also subdeacon). There are numerous administrative
   positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek
   tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called Metropolitan,
   while the lead bishop in Greece is the Archbishop. Priests can be
   archpriests, archimandrites, or protopresbyters. Deacons can be
   archdeacons or protodeacons as well. The position of deacon is often
   occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.

   The Orthodox Church has always allowed married priests and deacons,
   provided the marriage takes place before ordination. In general, parish
   priests are to be married as they live in normal society (that is, "in
   the world" and not a monastery) where Orthodoxy sees marriage as the
   normative state. Unmarried priests usually live in monasteries since it
   is there that the unmarried state is the norm, although it sometimes
   happens that an unmarried priest is assigned to a parish. Widowed
   priests and deacons may not remarry, and it is common for such a member
   of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see clerical celibacy). This is
   also true of widowed wives of clergy, who often do not remarry and may
   become nuns if their children are grown. Bishops are always celibate.
   Although Orthodox consider men and women equal before God ( Gal. 3:28),
   only men who are qualified and have no canonical impediments may be
   ordained bishops, priests, or deacons.

Anointing with Holy Oil

   Anointing, or Holy Unction, is one of the many mysteries administered
   by the Orthodox Church. The Mystery is far more common in the Orthodox
   Church than it had traditionally been in the Roman Catholic Church
   (until recent years). In both Churches today it is not reserved for the
   dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily
   healing. In Orthodoxy, however, it is also offered annually on Great
   Wednesday to all believers. It is often distributed on major feast
   days, or any time the clergy feel it necessary for the spiritual
   welfare of its congregation.

   According to Orthodox teaching Holy Unction is based on James 5:14-15:

     Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church,
     and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of
     the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord
     will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be
     forgiven.

History

The early Church

   Christianity first spread in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern
   half of the Roman Empire. Paul and the Apostles traveled extensively
   throughout the Empire, establishing Churches in major communities, with
   the first Churches appearing in Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, and
   then the two political centres of Rome and Constantinople. Orthodox
   believe an Apostolic Succession was established; this played a key role
   in the Church's view of itself as the preserver of the Christian
   community. Systematic persecution of Christians stopped in 313 when
   Emperor Constantine the Great proclaimed the Edict of Milan. From that
   time forward, the Byzantine Emperor exerted various degrees of
   influence over the church (see Caesaropapism). This included the
   calling of the Ecumenical Councils to resolve disputes and establish
   church dogma on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes
   Patriarchs (often of Constantinople) were deposed by the emperor; at
   one point emperors sided with the iconoclasts in the eighth and ninth
   centuries.

Ecumenical councils

   Several Ecumenical Councils were held between 325 (the First Council of
   Nicaea) and 787 (the Second Council of Nicaea), which to Orthodox
   constitute the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma. Orthodox
   thinking differs on whether the Fourth and Fifth Councils of
   Constantinople were properly Ecumenical Councils, but the majority view
   is that they were merely influential, and not bindingly dogmatic.

   Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point
   of Byzantine Empire and continued to flourish in Russia, after the fall
   of Constantinople. Numerous autocephalous churches were established in
   Eastern Europe and Slavic areas.

   The Orthodox churches with the largest number of adherents in modern
   times are the Russian and the Romanian Orthodox churches. The most
   ancient of the Orthodox churches of today are the Churches of
   Constantinople, Alexandria (which includes all of Africa, Georgia,
   Antioch, and Jerusalem.

The Roman/Byzantine Empire

   Several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards led to the
   calling of Ecumenical councils. The Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of
   Alexandria) split into two groups following the Council of Chalcedon (
   451), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human
   natures of Jesus. Eventually this led to each group having its own
   Patriarch (Pope). Those that remained in communion with the other
   patriarchs were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because
   Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with
   the Melkite Catholics of Antioch], and are today known as the Greek
   Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, until recently led by Pope Petros
   VII. Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon
   are today known as the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, led
   by Pope Shenouda III. There was a similar split in Syria. Those who
   disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called " Oriental
   Orthodox" to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted
   the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred
   to as " monophysites", "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians",
   although today the Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is
   monophysite and prefers the term " miaphysite", to denote the "joined"
   nature of Jesus. Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox
   churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true
   church and the other fallen into heresy, although over the last several
   decades there has been some reconciliation.

   In the 530s the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) was built in
   Constantinople under emperor Justinian I.

The seven ecumenical councils

   Eastern Orthodox Christianity recognizes only these seven ecumenical
   councils.
    1. The first of the Seven Ecumenical Councils was that convoked by the
       Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicea in 325, condemning the view of
       Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.
    2. The Second Ecumenical Council was held at Constantinople in 381,
       defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His
       inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.
    3. The Third Ecumenical Council is that of Ephesus in 431, which
       affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (
       Theotokos), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.
    4. The Fourth Ecumenical Council is that of Chalcedon in 451, which
       affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of
       the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.
    5. The Fifth Ecumenical Council is the second of Constantinople in
       553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining
       the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the
       teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.
    6. The Sixth Ecumenical Council is the third of Constantinople in 681;
       it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and
       divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.
    7. The Seventh Ecumenical Council was called under the Empress Regent
       Irene in 787, known as the second of Nicea. It affirmed the making
       and veneration of icons, while also forbidding the worship of icons
       and the making of three-dimensional statuary. It reversed the
       declaration of an earlier council that had called itself the
       Seventh Ecumenical Council and also nullified its status (see
       separate article on Iconoclasm). That earlier council had been held
       under the iconoclast Emperor Constantine V. It met with more than
       340 bishops at Constantinople and Hieria in 754, declaring the
       making of icons of Jesus or the saints an error, mainly for
       Christological reasons.

The Oriental Orthodox

   As noted above, Eastern Orthodoxy strives to keep the faith of the
   aforementioned seven Ecumenical Councils. In contrast, the term "
   Oriental Orthodoxy" refers to the churches of Eastern Christian
   traditions that keep the faith of only the first three ecumenical
   councils — the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of
   Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus — and rejected the dogmatic
   definitions of the Council of Chalcedon. Thus, "Oriental Orthodox"
   churches are distinct from the churches that collectively refer to
   themselves as "Eastern Orthodox". As well, there are the " Nestorian"
   churches, which are Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of
   only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of
   Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople.

The Great Schism

   In the 11th century the Great Schism took place between Rome and
   Constantinople, which led to separation of the Church of the West, the
   Roman Catholic Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. There were
   doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Pope
   involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and
   linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks.

   The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the sacking
   of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The sacking of the
   Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 is
   viewed with some rancour to the present day. In 2004, Pope John Paul II
   extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204;
   the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of
   Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time: relics,
   riches, and many other items, are still held in various Catholic
   churches in Western Europe.

   In 1453, the Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time
   Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but
   Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an
   autocephalous status; and thus Moscow called itself the Third Rome, as
   the cultural heir of the Constantinople. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek
   Orthodox Church acquired substantial power. The ecumenical patriarch
   was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek
   Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all
   the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire. However, the number of
   Orthodox members in present-day Turkey have been reduced to a few
   thousand since the birth of the present-day secular state due to
   restrictive laws and practices enacted in the 1920s and 1970s.

Conversion of East and South Slavs

   Orthodox churches in Vologda, Russia
   Enlarge
   Orthodox churches in Vologda, Russia

   In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into
   Eastern Europe, including Kievan Rus'. This work was made possible by
   the work of the Byzantine saints Cyril and Methodius. When Rastislav,
   the king of Moravia, asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to
   the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III
   chose these two brothers. As their mother was a Slav from the
   hinterlands of Thessaloniki, Cyril and Methodius spoke the local
   Slavonic vernacular and translated the Bible and many of the prayer
   books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of
   other dialects, the hybrid literary language Old Church Slavonic was
   created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of Great Moravia, Cyril
   and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from
   the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in
   AD 886.

   Methodius later went on to convert the Serbs.

   Some of the disciples, namely St. Kliment, St. Naum who were of noble
   Bulgarian descent and St. Angelaruis, returned to Bulgaria where they
   were welcomed by the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic
   liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a
   short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and
   instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet
   and the biblical texts and in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek
   clergy and proclaimed the Slavonic language as the official language of
   the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the
   Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East Slavic peoples,
   most notably the Rus', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and
   Ukrainians.

   The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part
   because they used the people's native language rather than Latin as the
   Roman priests did, or Greek. Today the Russian Orthodox Church is the
   largest of the Orthodox Churches.

The Church in North America

   St. Tikhon's Russian Orthodox Monastery in South Canaan, Pennsylvania
   Enlarge
   St. Tikhon's Russian Orthodox Monastery in South Canaan, Pennsylvania

   Russian traders settled in Alaska during the 1700s, and Greek laborers,
   brought in by a British adventurer and entrepreneur, formed a colony in
   what is now New Smyrna, Florida beginning in 1754. In 1740, a Divine
   Liturgy was celebrated on board a Russian ship off the Alaskan coast.
   In 1794 the Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries -- among them
   Saint Herman of Alaska -- to establish a formal mission in Alaska.
   Their missionary endeavors contributed to the conversion of many
   Alaskan natives to the Orthodox faith. A diocese was established, whose
   first bishop was Saint Innocent of Alaska. The headquarters of this
   North American Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was moved from
   Alaska to California around the mid-19th century.

   It was moved again in the last part of the same century, this time to
   New York. This transfer coincided with a great movement of Uniates to
   the Orthodox Church in the eastern United States. This movement, which
   increased the numbers of Orthodox Christians in America, resulted from
   a conflict between John Ireland, the politically powerful Roman
   Catholic Archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota; and Alexis Toth, an
   influential Ruthenian Catholic priest. Archbishop Ireland's refusal to
   accept Fr. Toth's credentials as a priest induced Fr. Toth to return to
   the Orthodox Church of his ancestors, and further resulted in the
   return of tens of thousands of other Uniate Catholics in North America
   to the Orthodox Church, under his guidance and inspiration. For this
   reason, Ireland is sometimes ironically remembered as the "Father of
   the Orthodox Church in America." These Uniates were received into
   Orthodoxy into the existing North American diocese of the Russian
   Orthodox Church. At the same time large numbers of Greeks and other
   Orthodox Christians were also immigrating to America. At this time all
   Orthodox Christians in North America were united under the omophorion
   (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow, through
   the Russian Church's North American diocese. The unity was not merely
   theoretical, but was a reality, since there was then no other diocese
   on the continent. Under the aegis of this diocese, which at the turn of
   the century was ruled by Bishop (and future Patriarch) Tikhon, Orthodox
   Christians of various ethnic backgrounds were ministered to, both
   non-Russian and Russian; a Syro-Arab mission was established in the
   episcopal leadership of Saint Raphael of Brooklyn, who was the first
   Orthodox bishop to be consecrated in America.

   The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the Bolshevik Revolution.
   One of its effects was a flood of refugees from Russia to the United
   States, Canada, and Europe. Among those who came were Orthodox lay
   people, deacons, priests, and bishops. In 1920 Patriarch Tikhon issued
   an ukase (decree) that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut
   off from the governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the
   Patriarch) should continue independently until such time as normal
   relations with the highest Church authority could be resumed; and on
   this basis, the North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church
   (known as the "Metropolia") continued to exist in a de facto autonomous
   mode of self-governance. The financial hardship that beset the North
   American diocese as the result of the Russian Revolution resulted in a
   degree of administrative chaos, with the result that other national
   Orthodox communities in North America turned to the Churches in their
   respective homelands for pastoral care and governance. Between the
   World Wars the Metropolia coexisted and at times cooperated with an
   independent synod later known as Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia
   (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. The
   two groups eventually went their separate ways. ROCOR, which moved its
   headquarters to North America after the Second World War, claimed but
   failed to establish jurisdiction over all parishes of Russian origin in
   North America. The Metropolia, as a former diocese of the Russian
   Church, looked to the latter as its highest church authority, albeit
   one from which it was temporarily cut off under the conditions of the
   communist regime in Russia. After resuming communication with Moscow in
   early 1960s, and being granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia
   became known as the Orthodox Church in America (OCA, though referred to
   rarely as "TOCA"). . However, recognition of this autocephalic status
   is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the Greek
   Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other jurisdictions have not
   officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless
   the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in
   communion with the OCA.
   The Rila Monastery, founded in the 10th century is the largest and most
   historically and culturally important Eastern Orthodox monastery in
   Bulgaria
   Enlarge
   The Rila Monastery, founded in the 10th century is the largest and most
   historically and culturally important Eastern Orthodox monastery in
   Bulgaria

   Today there are many Orthodox churches in the United States and Canada
   that are still bound to the Greek, Antiochian, or other overseas
   jurisdictions; in some cases these different overseas jurisdictions
   will have churches in the same U.S. city. However, there are also many
   "pan-orthodox" activities and organizations, both formal and informal,
   among Orthodox believers of all jurisdictions. One such organization is
   the Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America (SCOBA), the
   Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas,
   which comprises North American Orthodox bishops from nearly all
   jurisdictions. (See list of Orthodox jurisdictions in North America.)

   In June of 2002, the Antiochian Orthodox Church granted self-rule to
   the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America. Some observers
   see this as a step towards greater organizational unity in North
   America.

   During the past 50 years there have come into existence in North
   America a number of Western Rite Orthodox parishes. These are sometimes
   labelled " Western Orthodox Churches," but this term is not generally
   used by Orthodox Christians of Eastern or Western rite. These are
   Orthodox Christians who use the Western forms of liturgy ( Latin Rites)
   yet are Orthodox in their theology. The Antiochian Orthodox Church and
   ROCOR both have Western Rite parishes.

   According to some estimates, there are over 2000 Orthodox parishes in
   United States. Roughly half of these belong to OCA, Greek and
   Antiochian Orthodox Churches, and the rest are divided among other
   jurisdictions.

   The estimates of numbers of Eastern Orthodox adherents in North America
   vary considerably depending on methodology ( as well as the definition
   of the term "adherent" ) and generally fall in range from 1.2 million
   to 6 million.

   Eastern Orthodoxy has had a history in China and East Asia as well.

The Church today

   Distribution of Eastern Orthodoxy in the world by country ██ Dominant
   religion ██ Important minority religion (over 10%)
   Enlarge
   Distribution of Eastern Orthodoxy in the world by country ██ Dominant
   religion ██ Important minority religion (over 10%)

   The various autocephalous and autonomous churches of the Orthodox
   Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but
   for the most part exist in full communion with one another, with
   exceptions such as lack of relations between the Russian Orthodox
   Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the Moscow Patriarchate (the Orthodox
   Church of Russia) dating from the 1920s and due to the subjection of
   the latter to the hostile Soviet regime. However, attempts at
   reconciliation are being made between the ROCOR and the Moscow
   Patriarchate with the ultimate purpose of reunification. Further
   tensions exist in the philosophical differences between the New
   Calendarists and the Moderate Old Calendarists.

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