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Death Valley National Park

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   Death Valley National Park
   IUCN Category II ( National Park)
   Death Valley National Park
   Location: California & Nevada, USA
   Nearest city: Pahrump, Nevada
   Coordinates: 36°14′31″N, 116°49′33″W
   Area: 3,367,627.68 acres (13,628 km²) 3,348,928.88 acres (13,553 km²)
   federal
   Established: October 31, 1994
   Visitation: 764,820 (in 2004)
   Governing body: National Park Service

   Death Valley National Park is a mostly- arid United States National
   Park located east of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in Inyo County,
   California with a small extension and exclave ( Devil's Hole) in Nye
   County, Nevada. The park covers 5,219 mi² ( 13,518 km²), encompassing
   Saline Valley, a large part of Panamint Valley, almost all of Death
   Valley, and parts of several mountain ranges. It is the hottest and
   driest of the national parks in the United States and contains the
   second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere at Badwater, which is 282
   feet (86 m) below sea level. It is also home to many species of plants
   and animals that have adapted to this harsh desert environment. Some
   examples include Creosote Bush, Bighorn Sheep, Coyote, and the Death
   Valley Pupfish — a survivor of much wetter times. Approximately 95% of
   the park is designated as wilderness.

   Mining was the primary activity in the area before it was protected.
   The first known non- Native Americans to enter Death Valley did so in
   the winter of 1849, thinking they would save some time by taking a
   shortcut to the gold fields of California. They were stuck for weeks
   and in the process gave the Valley its name even though only one of
   their group died there. Several short-lived boom towns sprung up during
   the late 19th and early 20th centuries to exploit minor local bonanzas
   of gold. The only long-term profitable ore to be mined, however, was
   borax; a mineral used to make soap and an important industrial
   compound. 20-Mule Teams were famously used to transport this ore out of
   the Valley, helping to make it famous and the subject or set of
   numerous books, radio programs, television series, and movies. Death
   Valley National Monument was proclaimed in 1933, placing the area under
   federal protection. In 1994, the monument was redesignated a national
   park, as well as being substantially expanded to include, for example,
   Saline and Eureka Valleys.

   The natural environment of the area has been profoundly shaped by its
   geology, which is very long and complex. The oldest rocks are
   extensively metamorphosed and at least 1700 million years old. Ancient
   warm, shallow seas deposited marine sediments until rifting opened the
   Pacific Ocean. Additional sedimentation occurred until a subduction
   zone formed off the coast. This uplifted the region out of the sea and
   created a line of volcanoes. Later the crust started to pull apart,
   creating the Basin and Range landform we see today. Valleys filled with
   sediment and, during the wet times of ice ages, with lakes, such as
   Lake Manly.
   The sign at the entrance of Death Valley National Park.
   Enlarge
   The sign at the entrance of Death Valley National Park.
   A slice through the highest and lowest points in Death Valley National
   Park.
   Enlarge
   A slice through the highest and lowest points in Death Valley National
   Park.
   Map of the park showing surrounding area and the previous smaller
   extent of the Park.
   Enlarge
   Map of the park showing surrounding area and the previous smaller
   extent of the Park.

Geographic setting

   Within the park there are two major valleys: Death Valley and Panamint
   Valley, both of which were formed within the last few million years and
   both bounded by north-south-trending mountain ranges. These and
   adjacent valleys follow the general trend of Basin and Range topography
   with one modification: there are parallel strike-slip faults that
   perpendicularly bound the central extent of Death Valley. The result of
   this shearing action is additional extension in the central part of
   Death Valley which causes a slight widening and relatively more
   subsidence there.

   Uplift of surrounding mountain ranges and subsidence of the valley
   floor are both occurring. The uplift on the Black Mountains is so fast
   that the alluvial fans (fan-shaped deposits at the mouth of canyons)
   there are relatively small and steep compared to the huge alluvial fans
   coming off the Panamint Range. In many places so-called "wine glass
   canyons" are formed along the Black Mountains front as a result. This
   type of canyon results from the mountain range's relatively fast uplift
   which does not allow the canyons enough time to cut a classic V-shape
   all the way down to the stream bed. Instead a V-shape ends at a slot
   canyon halfway down with a relatively small and steep alluvial fan on
   which the stream sediments collect.

   The highest range in the park is the Panamint Range with Telescope Peak
   being its highest point at 11,049 feet (3368 m). Death Valley is a
   transitional zone in the northernmost part of the Mojave Desert and is
   five mountain ranges removed from the Pacific Ocean. Three of these are
   significant barriers: the Sierra Nevada, Argus Range, and the Panamint
   Range. Air masses tend to lose their moisture as they are forced up
   over mountain ranges, in what climatologists call a rainshadow effect.
   The exaggerated rainshadow effect for the Death Valley area makes it
   North America's driest spot, receiving about 1.7 inches (43 mm) of
   rainfall annually at Badwater (some years fail to register any
   measurable rainfall). Annual average precipitation varies from 1.90
   inches (48 mm) overall below sea level to over 15 inches (380 mm) in
   the higher mountains that surround the Valley. When rain does arrive it
   often does so in intense storms that cause flash floods which remodel
   the landscape and sometimes create very shallow ephemeral lakes.
   Entire area in yellow is below sea level (USGS image)
   Enlarge
   Entire area in yellow is below sea level (USGS image)

   At 282 feet (86 m) below sea level, Badwater on Death Valley's floor is
   the second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere (behind Laguna del
   Carbon in Argentina), while Mount Whitney, only 85 miles (140 km) to
   the west, rises to 14,505 feet (4,421 m). This is the greatest dry-land
   topographic relief in the contiguous United States and is the terminus
   point of the Great Basin's southwestern drainage. Although the extreme
   lack of water in the Great Basin makes this distinction of little
   current practical use, it does mean that in wetter times the lake that
   once filled Death Valley ( Lake Manly) was the last stop for water
   flowing in the region, meaning the water there was relatively saturated
   in dissolved materials. Thus salt pans in Death Valley are among the
   largest in the world and are rich in minerals, such as borax and
   various salts and hydrates. The largest salt pan in the park extends 40
   miles (65 km) from the Ashford Mill Site to the Salt Creek Hills,
   covering some 200 square miles (500 km²) of the Valley floor (Badwater,
   the Devils Golf Course, and Salt Creek are all part of this feature).
   The second-most well-known playa in the park is the Racetrack, famous
   for its mysterious moving rocks.
   Death Valley and environs
   Enlarge
   Death Valley and environs

   Death Valley is one of the hottest and driest places in North America
   due to its lack of surface water and its low relief. On July 10, 1913,
   a record 134 °F (~57 °C) was measured at Badwater, which is ( as of
   2005) the highest temperature ever recorded on that continent. Daily
   summer temperatures of 120 °F (50 °C) or greater are common as well as
   below freezing nightly temperatures in the winter. Several of the
   larger Death Valley springs derive their water from a regional aquifer,
   which extends as far east as southern Nevada and Utah. Much of the
   water in this aquifer was placed there many thousands of years ago,
   during the Pleistocene ice ages, when climate was cooler and wetter.
   Today's drier climate does not provide enough precipitation to recharge
   the aquifer at the rate at which water is being withdrawn.

   The hot, dry climate makes it difficult for soil to form. Mass wasting,
   the down-slope movement of loose rock, is therefore the dominant
   erosive force in mountainous area, resulting in "skeletonized" ranges
   (literally, mountains with very little soil on them). Sand dunes in the
   park, while famous, are not nearly as numerous as their fame or dryness
   of the area may suggest. One of the main dune fields is near Stovepipe
   Wells in the north-central part of the Valley and is primarily made of
   quartz sand. Another dune field is just 10 miles (16 km) to the north
   but is instead mostly composed of travertine sand. Yet another dune
   field is near the seldom-visited Ibex Hill in the southernmost part of
   the park, just south of Saratoga Springs (a marshland). Prevailing
   winds in the winter come from the north, and prevailing winds in the
   summer come from the south. Thus the overall position of the dune
   fields remain more or less fixed.

Human history

Early inhabitants and passers-through

   Petroglyphs above Mesquite Springs by the Mesquite Flat People.
   Enlarge
   Petroglyphs above Mesquite Springs by the Mesquite Flat People.

   Four known Native American cultures have lived in the area during the
   last 10,000 years or so. The first known group, the Nevares Spring
   People, were hunters and gatherers who arrived in the area perhaps 9000
   years ago (7000 BCE) when lakes were still in Death Valley and
   neighboring Panamint Valley—remnants of the once huge lakes Manly and
   Panamint. A much milder climate persisted at that time, and large game
   animals were still plentiful. By five thousand years ago (3000 BCE) the
   culturally similar Mesquite Flat People displaced the Nevares Spring
   People. Around 2000 years ago (start of the common era) the Saratoga
   Spring People moved into the area, which by then was probably already a
   hot, dry desert (the last known lake to exist in Death Valley likely
   dried up a thousand years before). This culture was more advanced at
   hunting and gathering and was skillful at handcrafts. They also left
   mysterious stone patterns in the Valley.

   A thousand years later the nomadic Timbisha (formerly called "Shoshone"
   and also known as "Panamint" or "Koso") moved into the area and hunted
   game and gathered mesquite beans along with pinyon pine nuts. Because
   of the wide altitude differential between the valley bottom and the
   mountain ridges, especially on the west, the Timbisha practiced a
   vertical migration pattern. Their winter camps were located near water
   sources in the valley bottoms. As the spring and summer progressed,
   grasses and other plant food sources ripened at progressively higher
   altitudes as the weather warmed. November found them at the very top of
   the mountain ridges where they harvested pine nuts before moving back
   to the valley bottom for winter. Several families of Timbisha still
   live within the Park at Furnace Creek (Timbisha is the Native name of
   the village). The former village of Maahunu located near Scotty's
   Castle has been abandoned although many of the baskets on display at
   the Castle were made by the Timbisha, who worked there as laborers and
   housekeepers before the National Park Service took over its care.

   The California Gold Rush brought the first Caucasians known to visit
   the immediate area. In December 1849 two groups of California Gold
   Country-bound White travelers with perhaps 100 wagons total stumbled
   into Death Valley after getting lost on what they thought was a
   shortcut off the Old Spanish Trail. Called the Bennett-Arcane Party,
   they were unable to find a pass out of the valley for weeks and were
   forced to eat several of their oxen to survive but were able to find
   fresh water at the various springs in the area. They used the wood of
   their wagons to cook the meat and make jerky. The place where they did
   this is today referred to as "Burned Wagons Camp" and is located near
   the sand dunes.

   After abandoning their wagons they eventually were able to hike out of
   the valley through the rugged Wingate Pass. Just after leaving the
   valley one of the women in the group turned and said, "Goodbye Death
   Valley," giving the valley they endured its name (in fact only one
   person of the group died in Death Valley, an elderly man named
   Culverwell, who was half dead already when he entered the Valley).
   Included in the party was William Lewis Manly whose autobiographical
   book Death Valley in '49 detailed this trek and greatly popularized the
   area (geologists later named the prehistoric lake that once filled the
   valley after him).

Boom and bust

   20 Mule Team in Death Valley
   Enlarge
   20 Mule Team in Death Valley

   The ores that are most famously associated with the area were also the
   easiest to collect (and most profitable): evaporite deposits such as
   salts, borate, and talc. Borax was found by Rosie and Aaron Winters
   near Furnace Creek Ranch (then called Greenland) in 1881. Later that
   same year the Eagle Borax Works became Death Valley's first commercial
   borax operation. William Tell Coleman built the Harmony Borax Works
   plant and began to process ore in late 1883 or early 1884 until 1888.
   This mining and smelting company produced borax to make soap and for
   industrial uses. The end product was shipped out of the valley 165
   miles (265 km) to the Mojave railhead in 10-ton-capacity wagons pulled
   by " twenty mule teams" that were actually teams of 18 mules and 2
   horses each. The teams averaged two miles (3 km) an hour and required
   about 30 days to complete a round trip. The trade name 20-Mule Team
   Borax was established by Francis Marion Smith's Pacific Coast Borax
   Company after Smith acquired Coleman's borax holdings in 1890. A very
   memorable advertising campaign used the wagon's image to promote the
   Boraxo brand of granular hand soap and the Death Valley Days radio and
   television programs. Mining of the ore continued after the collapse of
   Coleman's empire, and by the 1920s the area was the world's number one
   source of borax. Some 6 to 4 million years old, the Furnace Creek
   Formation is the primary source of borate minerals gathered from Death
   Valley's playas (See Zabriskie Point for more information).
   Skidoo in 1906
   Enlarge
   Skidoo in 1906

   Later visitors stayed to prospect for and mine deposits of copper,
   gold, lead, and silver. These sporadic mining ventures were hampered by
   their remote location and the harsh desert environment. In December
   1903, two men from Ballarat were prospecting for silver. One was an out
   of work Irish miner named Jack Keane and the other was a one-eyed
   Basque butcher named Domingo Etcharren. Keane, quite by accident,
   discovered an immense ledge of free-milling gold by the duo's work site
   and named the claim the Keane Wonder Mine. This started a minor and
   short-lived gold rush into the area. The Keane Wonder Mine along with
   mines at Rhyolite, Skidoo and Harrisburg were the only ones to extract
   enough metal ore to make them worthwhile. Outright shams such as
   Leadville also occurred, but most ventures quickly ended after a short
   series of prospecting mines failed to yield evidence of significant ore
   (these mines now dot the entire area and are a significant hazard to
   anyone who enters them). The boom towns which sprang up around these
   mines flourished during the first decade of the 20th century but soon
   slowed down after the Panic of 1907.

Early tourism

   Scotty's Castle under construction
   Enlarge
   Scotty's Castle under construction

   The first documented tourist facilities in Death Valley were a set of
   tent houses built in the 1920s where Stovepipe Wells is now located.
   People flocked to resorts built around natural springs thought to have
   curative and restorative properties. In 1927, one of the borax
   companies working in the Valley turned its Furnace Creek Ranch crew
   quarters into a resort, creating the Furnace Creek Inn and resort. The
   spring at Furnace Creek was harnessed to develop the resort, and as the
   water was diverted, the surrounding marshes and wetlands started to
   shrink.

   Soon the Valley was a popular winter destination. Other facilities
   started off as private getaways but were later opened to the public.
   Most notable among these was Death Valley Ranch, better known as
   Scotty's Castle. This large ranch home built in the Spanish-ranchero
   style became a hotel in the late 1930s and, largely due to the fame of
   Death Valley Scotty, a tourist attraction. Death Valley Scotty, whose
   real name was Walter Scott, was a gold miner who pretended to be owner
   of "his castle," which he claimed to have built with profits from his
   gold mine. Neither claim was true, but the real owner, Chicago,
   millionaire Albert Mussey Johnson, encouraged the myth. When asked by
   reporters what his connection was to Walter Scott's castle, Johnson
   replied that he was Mr. Scott's banker.

Protection and later history

   Civilian Conservation Corps workers in Death Valley
   Enlarge
   Civilian Conservation Corps workers in Death Valley

   President Herbert Hoover proclaimed a national monument in and around
   Death Valley on February 11, 1933, setting aside almost 2 million acres
   (8,000 km²) of southeastern California and small parts of westernmost
   Nevada. Twelve companies worked in Death Valley using Civilian
   Conservation Corps workers during the Great Depression and into the
   early 1940s. They built barracks, graded 500 miles (800 km) of roads,
   installed water and telephone lines, and erected a total of 76
   buildings. Trails in the Panamint Range were built to points of scenic
   interest, and an adobe village, laundry and trading post were
   constructed for Shoshone Indians. Five campgrounds, restrooms, an
   airplane landing field and picnic facilities were also built.

   Creation of the monument resulted in a temporary closing of the lands
   to prospecting and mining. However, by prior agreement, Death Valley
   was quickly reopened to mining by Congressional action in June of the
   same year. As improvements in mining technology allowed lower grades of
   ore to be processed and new heavy equipment allowed greater amounts of
   rock to be moved, mining in Death Valley changed. Gone were the days of
   the "single-blanket, jackass prospector" long associated with the
   romantic west. Open pit and strip mines scarred the landscape as
   internationally owned mining corporations bought claims in highly
   visible locations of the national monument. The public outcry that
   ensued led to greater protection for all national park and monument
   areas in the United States.
   Inside an abandoned mine at Leadfield
   Enlarge
   Inside an abandoned mine at Leadfield

   Congress passed the Mining in the Parks Act in 1976 which closed Death
   Valley National Monument to the filing of new mining claims, banned
   open-pit mining and required the National Park Service to examine the
   validity of tens of thousands of pre-1976 mining claims. Mining was
   allowed to resume on a limited basis in 1980 with stricter
   environmental standards. The park's Resources Management Division
   monitors mining within park boundaries and continues to review the
   status of 125 unpatented mining claims and 19 patented claim groups,
   while insuring that federal guidelines are followed and the park's
   resources are being protected. As of 2003, the only active mining
   operation in Death Valley National Park is the Billie Mine, an
   underground borax mine located along the road to Dante's View.

   Death Valley National Monument was designated a biosphere reserve in
   1984. On October 31, 1994, the Monument was expanded 1.3 million acres
   (5,300 km²) and redesignated a national park by passage of the Desert
   Protection Act. This made it the largest national park in the
   contiguous United States.

   Many of the larger cities and towns within the boundary of the regional
   ground water flow system that the park and its plants and animals rely
   upon are experiencing some of the fastest growth rates of any place in
   the United States. Notable examples within a 100-mile radius of Death
   Valley National Park include Las Vegas and Pahrump, Nevada. In the case
   of Las Vegas, the local Chamber of Commerce estimates that 6,000 people
   are moving to the city every month. Between 1985 and 1995, the
   population of the Las Vegas Valley increased from 550,700 to 1,138,800.

Telephone history

   While the area has modern telephone service today, the park is a rural
   area.

   Before the 1980s, a variety of telephone technologies of different eras
   connected communities within the park. The area was within the Pacific
   Telephone area of the former Bell System. An electromechanical
   step-by-step central office at Furnace Creek switched calls for dial
   telephones in the resort and Visitor Centre area. At the time, service
   was constrained to rotary dial only. Coin service was provided and
   included dialtone-first 9-1-1 service when that rolled out.

   A 454 MHz (Furnace Creek to Stovepipe Wells) / 459 MHz (reverse
   direction) full-duplex Rural Radio Telephone Service link went from
   Furnace Creek Central Office to Stovepipe Wells. The channel pairs were
   shared with Improved Mobile Telephone Service, which was not offered on
   UHF in Death Valley. The link used single-frequency (SF) signaling.
   Subscribers at Stovepipe Wells used non-dial phones, (manual service).
   To place a call, they would just go off-hook and wait for the operator.
   To reach Stovepipe Wells from anyplace in North America, callers would
   dial "0" for the operator and ask for Stovepipe Wells California Toll
   Station Number... (and the single-digit number). Although Death Valley
   was in 619 area code at the time, the operator routing for Stovepipe
   Wells was through Los Angeles: KP 213+181 ST. The caller's local toll
   operator would have to call an operator in Los Angeles, who would
   manually set up the call.

   Death Valley Junction was also on manual service. A multi-circuit open
   wire ran from Furnace Creek Central Office to Death Valley Junction. An
   unusual, non-dial 1A1 Coin Collector was installed at the Amargosa
   Hotel. Its bright red instruction card said, "Do Not Deposit Coins," as
   there was no way to send coin relay commands (e.g. coin return/coin
   collect) over the manual circuit.

Geologic history

   The Death and Panamint valleys area from space. The elliptical
   depression to the left is the Searles Lake basin, the smaller linear
   valley is Panamint Valley and the larger one is Death Valley. The
   mountain range between Death and Panamint valleys is the Panamint
   Range, and the Black Mountains bound the other side of Death Valley.
   (NASA image)
   Enlarge
   The Death and Panamint valleys area from space. The elliptical
   depression to the left is the Searles Lake basin, the smaller linear
   valley is Panamint Valley and the larger one is Death Valley. The
   mountain range between Death and Panamint valleys is the Panamint
   Range, and the Black Mountains bound the other side of Death Valley.
   (NASA image)

   The park has a diverse and complex geologic history. Since its
   formation, the area that comprises the park has experienced at least
   four major periods of extensive volcanism, three or four periods of
   major sedimentation, and several intervals of major tectonic
   deformation where the crust has been reshaped. Two periods of
   glaciation (a series of ice ages) have also had its effects on the
   area, although no glaciers ever existed in the ranges now in the park.

   Little is known about the history of the oldest exposed rocks in the
   area due to extensive metamorphism (alteration of rock by heat and
   pressure). Radiometric dating gives an age of 1700 million years for
   the metamorphism (during the Proterozoic: See bottom of the geologic
   timeline). 1400 million years ago a mass of granite now in the Panamint
   Range intruded this complex. Uplift later exposed these rocks to nearly
   500 million years of erosion.

   The Pahrump Group of formations is several thousand feet (hundreds of
   meters) thick and was deposited from 1200 million to 800 million years
   ago. This was after uplift-associated erosion removed whatever rocks
   covered the Proteozoic-aged rock. Pahrump is composed of arkose
   conglomerate (stones in a concrete-like matrix) and mud stone, dolomite
   from carbonate banks topped by algal mats in stromatolites, and
   basin-filling sediment derived from the above including possibly
   glacial till from the Snowball Earth glaciation. The youngest rocks in
   the Pahrump Group are from basaltic lava flows.

   A rift opened and subsequently flooded the region as part of breakup of
   the supercontinent Rodinia and the creation of the Pacific Ocean. A
   shoreline similar to the present Atlantic Ocean margin of the United
   States lay to the east. An algal mat-covered carbonate bank was
   deposited (this is now the Noonday Dolomite). Subsidence of the region
   occurred as the continental crust thinned and the newly formed Pacific
   widened, forming the Ibex Formation. An angular unconformity (an uneven
   gap in the geologic record) followed.

   A true ocean basin developed to the west, breaking all the earlier
   formations along a steep front. A wedge of classtic sediment then
   started to accumulate at the base of the two underwater precipices,
   starting the formation of opposing continental shelfs. Three formations
   developed from sediment that accumulated on the wedge. The region's
   first known fossils of complex life are found in the resulting
   formations. Notable among these are the Ediacara fauna and trilobites
   (see Cambrian Explosion).
   The deep Death Valley basin is filled with sediment (light yellow)
   eroded from the surrounding mountains. Black lines show some of the
   major faults that created the valley.
   Enlarge
   The deep Death Valley basin is filled with sediment (light yellow)
   eroded from the surrounding mountains. Black lines show some of the
   major faults that created the valley.

   The sandy mudflats gave way about 550 million years ago to a carbonate
   platform (similar to the one around present-day Bahamas), which lasted
   for the next 300 million years of Paleozoic time (refer to the middle
   of the timecale image). Death Valley's position was then within ten or
   twenty degrees of the Paleozoic equator. Thick beds of carbonate-rich
   sediments were periodically interrupted by periods of emergence.
   Although details of geography varied during this immense interval of
   time, a north-northeasterly trending coastline generally ran from
   Arizona up through Utah. All told the resulting eight formations and
   one group are 20,000 feet (6 km) thick and underlay much of Cottonwood,
   Funeral, Grapevine, and Panamint ranges.

   In the early to mid Mesozoic the western edge of the North American
   continent was pushed against the oceanic plate under the Pacific Ocean,
   creating a subduction zone (place where heavier crust slides below
   lighter crust; see just above the top half of the timecale image).
   Erupting volcanoes and uplifting mountains were created as a result,
   and the coastline was pushed over 200 miles (over 300 km) to the west.
   The Sierran Arc started to form to the northwest from heat and pressure
   generated from subduction, and compressive forces caused thrust faults
   to develop.

   A long period of uplift and erosion was concurrent with and followed
   the above events, creating a major unconformity (a large gap in the
   geologic record). Sediments worn off the Death Valley region were
   carried both east and west by wind and water. No Jurassic- to
   Eocene-aged sedimentary formations exist in the area except for some
   possibly Jurassic-age volcanic rock (See the top of the timecale
   image).
   The Lake Manly lake system as it might have looked during its last
   maximum extent 22,000 years ago. (USGS image)
   The Lake Manly lake system as it might have looked during its last
   maximum extent 22,000 years ago. (USGS image)

   Erosion over many millions of years created a relatively featureless
   plain. 35 million years ago sluggish streams migrated laterally over
   its surface. Several other similar formations were also laid down.

   Basin and Range-associated stretching of the crust started around 16
   million years ago and had spread to the Death and Panamint valleys area
   by 3 million years ago (the region is still spreading), creating those
   valleys by 2 million years before the present. Before this, rocks now
   in the Panamint Range were on top of rocks that would become the Black
   Mountains and the Cottonwood Mountains. Lateral and vertical transport
   of these blocks was accomplished by movement on normal faults.
   Right-lateral movement along strike-slip faults that run parallel to
   and at the base of the ranges also helped to develop the area.
   Torsional forces, probably associated with northwesterly movement of
   the Pacific Plate along the San Andreas Fault (west of the region), is
   responsible for the lateral movement.

   Igneous activity associated with this stretching occurred from 12
   million to 4 million years ago. Sedimentation is concentrated in
   valleys (basins) from material eroded from adjacent ranges. The amount
   of sediment deposited has roughly kept up with this subsidence,
   resulting in retention of more or less the same valley floor elevation
   over time.

   Pleistocene ice ages started 2 million years ago, and melt from alpine
   glaciers on the nearby Sierra Nevada Mountains fed a series of lakes
   that filled Death and Panamint valleys and surrounding basins (see the
   top of the timecale image). The lake that filled Death Valley was the
   last of a chain of lakes fed by the Amargosa and Mojave Rivers, and
   possibly also the Owens River. 10,500 years ago the large lake covered
   much of Death Valley's floor, which geologists call Lake Manly, started
   to dry-up. Saltpans and playas were created as ice age glaciers
   retreated, thus drastically reducing the lakes' water source. Only
   faint shorelines are left.

Biology

   A Zebra-tailed lizard on Racetrack Playa
   Enlarge
   A Zebra-tailed lizard on Racetrack Playa
   Coyote near Titus Canyon
   Enlarge
   Coyote near Titus Canyon
   Sphinx Moth on Rock Nettle in Mosaic Canyon
   Enlarge
   Sphinx Moth on Rock Nettle in Mosaic Canyon
   Death Valley Pupfish spawning in Salt Creek
   Enlarge
   Death Valley Pupfish spawning in Salt Creek

   Habitat varies from saltpan 282 feet (86 m) below sea level to the
   sub-alpine conditions found on the summit of Telescope Peak, which
   rises to 11,049 feet (3368 m). Vegetation zones include Creosote Bush,
   Desert Holly, and mesquite at the lower elevations and sage up through
   shadscale, blackbrush, Joshua Tree, pinyon- juniper, to Limber Pine and
   Bristlecone Pine woodlands. The saltpan is devoid of vegetation, and
   the rest of the valley floor and lower slopes have sparse cover, yet
   where water is available, an abundance of vegetation is usually
   present.

   These zones and the adjacent desert support a variety of wildlife
   species, including 51 species of native mammals, 307 species of birds,
   36 species of reptiles, three species of amphibians, and two species of
   native fish. Small mammals are more numerous than large mammals, such
   as Bighorn Sheep, Coyotes, Bobcats, Kit Foxes, Mountain Lions, and Mule
   Deer. Mule Deer are present in the pinyon/juniper associations of the
   Grapevine, Cottonwood, and Panamint ranges. Bighorn Sheep are a rare
   species of mountain sheep that exist in isolated bands in the Sierra
   and in Death Valley. These are highly adaptable animals and can eat
   almost any plant. They have no known predators, but humans and burros
   compete for habitat. The ancestors of the Death Valley Pupfish swam to
   the area from the Colorado River via a long since dried-up system of
   rivers and lakes (see Lake Manly). They now live in two separate
   populations: one in Salt Creek and another in Cottonwood Marsh.

   Death Valley is one of the hottest and driest places in North America,
   yet it is home to over 1,040 species of plants, and 23 species are
   endemic—found nowhere else in the world. Adaptation to the dry
   environment is key. For example, creosote bush and mesquite have tap-
   root systems that can extend 50 feet (15 m) down in order to take
   advantage of a year-round supply of ground water. The diversity of
   Death Valley's plant communities results partly from the region's
   location in a transition zone between the Mojave Desert, the Great
   Basin Desert and the Sonoran Desert. This location, combined with the
   great relief found within the Park, supports vegetation typical of
   three biotic life zones:
     * the lower Sonoran,
     * the Canadian, and the
     * Arctic/Alpine in portions of the Panamint Range.

   Based on the Munz and Keck (1968) classifications, seven plant
   communities can be categorized within these life zones, each
   characterized by dominant vegetation and representative of three
   vegetation types: scrub, desert woodland, and coniferous forest.
   Microhabitats further subdivide some communities into zones, especially
   on the valley floor.

   Unlike many locations across the Mojave Desert, many of the
   water-dependent Death Valley habitats possess a diversity of plant and
   animal species that are not found anywhere else in the world. The
   existence of these species is due largely to a unique geologic history
   and the process of evolution that has progressed in habitats that have
   been isolated from one another since the Pleistocene epoch.

Timbisha place names within the Park

   Timbisha, from tümpisa, "rock paint", refers to both the valley and the
   village located at the mouth of Furnace Creek. It refers to rich
   sources of red ochre paint in the valley. Ubehebe Crater, possibly from
   hüüppi pitsi, "old woman's breast". The Timbisha call it tümpingwosa,
   "rock basket". Wahguyhe Peak, from the Timbisha name waakko'i, "pinyon
   pine summit". The Timbisha term refers to the entire Grapevine Range.
   Hanaupah Canyon, from the Timbisha name hunuppaa, "canyon springs".
   (see Timbisha language)

Activities

   Viewing valley wildflowers in bloom
   Enlarge
   Viewing valley wildflowers in bloom

   Sightseeing by personal automobile, four-wheel drive, bicycle, mountain
   bike (established roadways only), and hiking is available (see Places
   of interest in the Death Valley area for summaries about major
   attractions). Ranger-led Interpretive Programs are held from November
   through April. A costumed living history tour of the historic Death
   Valley Scotty's Castle is conducted for a fee.

   California State Route 190, the Badwater Road, The Scotty's Castle
   Road, and paved roads to Dante's View and Wildrose provide access to
   the major scenic viewpoints and historic points of interest. More than
   350 miles (560 km) of unpaved and four-wheel drive roads provide access
   to wilderness hiking, camping, and historical sites. All vehicles must
   be licensed and "street legal".
   Death Valley Sky by Ian Grant / Distinctphoto.com
   Enlarge
   Death Valley Sky by Ian Grant / Distinctphoto.com

   There are hiking trails of varying lengths and difficulties, but most
   backcountry areas are accessible only by cross-country hiking. There
   are literally thousands of hiking possibilities. The normal season for
   visiting the park is from October 15 to May 15 due to summer extremes
   in temperature.

   The Furnace Creek Inn and Ranch Resort is a private resort owned and
   operated by Xanterra Parks & Resorts. The resort is comprised of two
   separate and distinct hotels, the Furnace Creek Inn, is a four star
   historic hotel. The Furnace Creek Ranch is a three star ranch style
   property reminiscent of the mining and prospecting days.

   There are 10 different designated campgrounds within the park and
   overnight backcountry camping permits are available at the Visitor
   Centre. Scotty's Castle is also a popular tourist destination.

   The visitor center is located in the Furnace Creek resort area on
   California State Route 190. A 12-minute-long introductory slide program
   is shown every 30 minutes. During the winter season, November through
   April, rangers present a wide variety of walks, talks, and slide
   presentations about Death Valley cultural and natural history. The
   visitor centre has displays dealing with the geology, climate, wildlife
   and natural history of the park. There are also specific sections
   dealing with the human history and pioneer experience. There is a fully
   staffed information desk with information on all aspects of the park
   and its operation. The Death Valley Natural History Association
   maintains a well-stocked book sale outlet specifically geared towards
   the natural and cultural history of the park.
   A tourist sliding down Star Dune in the Mesquite Flat Dune field.
   Enlarge
   A tourist sliding down Star Dune in the Mesquite Flat Dune field.

Other available activities

     * Auto touring
     * Backpacking
     * Biking
     * Birdwatching
     * Camping
     * Hiking
     * Horseback riding
     * Interpretive programs
     * Nature walks
     * Stargazing
     * Swimming
     * Wilderness area
     * Wildlife viewing

   Retrieved from "
   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_Valley_National_Park"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
