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Community

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Culture and Diversity

   A community usually refers to a sociological group in a large place or
   collections of plant or animal organisms sharing an environment. In
   human communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks
   and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting
   the identity of the participants and their degree of adhesion.

   The word community comes from the Latin communis, meaning "common,
   public, shared by all or many." The Latin term "communitatus" from
   which the English word "community" comes, is comprised of three
   elements, "Com-" - a Latin prefix meaning with or together, "-Munis-" -
   ultimately Proto-Indo-European in origin, it has been suggested that it
   means "the changes or exchanges that link" (Both municipal and monetary
   take their meaning here), and "-tatus" a Latin suffix suggesting
   diminutive, small, intimate or local.

Perspectives from various disciplines

Sociology

   German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies presented a concise
   differentiation between the terms "community" (Gemeinschaft) and
   "society" (Gesellschaft). In his 1887 work, Gemeinschaft und
   Gesellschaft, Tönnies argued that "community" is perceived to be a
   tighter and more cohesive social entity within the context of the
   larger society, due to the presence of a "unity of will." He added that
   family and kinship were the perfect expressions of community, but that
   other shared characteristics, such as place or belief, could also
   result in gemeinschaft.

Individual and community

   A group of youth interacting

                        A group of youth interacting

   During human growth and maturation, people encounter sets of other
   individuals and experiences. Infants encounter first their immediate
   family, then extended family, and then local community (such as school
   and work). They thus develop individual and group identity through
   associations that connect them to life-long community experiences.

   As people grow, they learn about and form perceptions of social
   structures. During this progression, they form personal and cultural
   values, a world view and attitudes toward the larger society. Gaining
   an understanding of group dynamics and how to "fit in" is part of
   socialization. Individuals develop interpersonal relationships and
   begin to make choices about whom to associate with and under what
   circumstances.

   During adolescence and adulthood, the individual tends to develop a
   more sophisticated identity, often taking on a role as a leader or
   follower in groups. If an individual develops the feeling that they
   belong to a group, and they must help the group they are part of, then
   they develop a sense of community.

Social capital

   If the sense of community exists, both freedom and security exist as
   well. The community then takes on a life of its own, as people become
   free enough to share and secure enough to get along. The sense of
   connectedness and formation of social networks comprise what has become
   known as social capital.

   Social capital is defined by Robert D. Putnam as "the collective value
   of all social networks (who people know) and the inclinations that
   arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of
   reciprocity)." Social capital in action can be seen in groups of
   varying formality, including neighbors keeping an eye on each others'
   homes. However, as Putnam notes in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and
   Revival of American Community (2000), social capital has been falling
   in the United States. Putnam found that over the past 25 years,
   attendance at club meetings has fallen 58 percent, family dinners are
   down 33 percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45 percent.

   Western cultures are thus said to be losing the spirit of community
   that once were found in institutions including churches and community
   centers. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in The Great Good Place that
   people need three places: 1) The home, 2) the office, and, 3) the
   community hangout or gathering place.

   With this philosophy in mind, many grassroots efforts such as The
   Project for Public Spaces are being started to create this " Third
   Place" in communities. They are taking form in independent bookstores,
   coffeehouses, local pubs and through many innovative means to create
   the social capital needed to foster the sense and spirit of community.

Psychology

Sense of community

   The sense of community

                           The sense of community

   Continuity of the connections between leaders, between leaders and
   followers, and among followers is vital to the strength of a community.
   Members individually hold the collective personality of the whole. With
   sustained connections and continued conversations, participants in
   communities develop emotional bonds, intellectual pathways, enhanced
   linguistic abilities, and even a higher capacity for critical thinking
   and problem-solving. It could be argued that successive and sustained
   contact with other people might help to remove some of the tension of
   isolation, due to alienation, thus opening creative avenues that would
   have otherwise remained impassable.

   Conversely, sustained involvement in tight communities may tend to
   increase tension in some people. However, in many cases, it is easy
   enough to distance oneself from the " hive" temporarily to ease this
   stress. Psychological maturity and effective communication skills are
   thought to be a function of this ability. In nearly every context,
   individual and collective behaviours are required to find a balance
   between inclusion and exclusion; for the individual, a matter of
   choice; for the group, a matter of charter. The sum of the creative
   energy (often referred to as " synergy") and the strength of the
   mechanisms that maintain this balance is manifest as an observable and
   resilient sense of community.

   McMillan and Chavis (1986) identify four elements of "sense of
   community": 1) membership, 2) influence, 3) integration and fulfillment
   of needs, and 4) shared emotional connection. They give the following
   example of the interplay between these factors:

     Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about
     the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team. People
     attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their
     individual needs (integration and fulfillment of needs). The team is
     bound by place of residence (membership boundaries are set) and
     spends time together in practice (the contact hypothesis). They play
     a game and win (successful shared valent event). While playing,
     members exert energy on behalf of the team (personal investment in
     the group). As the team continues to win, team members become
     recognized and congratulated (gaining honour and status for being
     members). Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and
     shoes (common symbols) and they do so (influence).

   A Sense of Community Index (SCI) has been developed by Chavis and
   colleagues and revised and adapted by others. Although originally
   designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has
   been adapted for use in schools, the workplace and a variety of types
   of communities.

Anthropology

   Community and its features are central to anthropological research.
   Some of the ways community is addressed in anthropology include the
   following:
     * Cultural (or Social) anthropological studies of community
     * Cross-cultural differences in community
     * Ethnographic fieldwork
     * Archaeological studies of the community phenomenon in ancient
       settings
     * Anthropology of religion
     * Anthropology of education
     * Urban anthropology
     * Ethnic and Racial Studies
     * Community empowerment
     * Virtual Internet communities (part of Cyber anthropology)
     * Ecological anthropology
     * Psychological anthropology

Social philosophy

Communitarianism

   Communitarianism as a group of related but distinct philosophies (or
   ideologies) began in the late 20th century, opposing classical
   liberalism and capitalism while advocating phenomena such as civil
   society. Not necessarily hostile to social liberalism, communitarianism
   rather has a different emphasis, shifting the focus of interest toward
   communities and societies and away from the individual. The question of
   priority, whether for the individual or community, must be determined
   in dealing with pressing ethical questions about a variety of social
   issues, such as health care, abortion, multiculturalism, and hate
   speech.

Business and communications

Organizational communication

   Effective communication practices in group and organizational settings
   are important to the formation and maintenance of communities. How
   ideas and values are communicated within communities are important to
   the induction of new members, the formulation of agendas, the selection
   of leaders and many other aspects. Organizational communication is the
   study of how people communicate within an organizational context and
   the influences and interactions within organizational structures. Group
   members depend on the flow of communication to establish their own
   identity within these structures and learn to function in the group
   setting. Although organizational communication, as a field of study, is
   usually geared toward companies and business groups, these may also be
   seen as communities. The principles of organizational communication can
   also be applied to other types of communities. jayke.

Interdisciplinary perspectives

Socialization

   Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs
   burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557.

     Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs
                    burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557.

   The process of learning to adopt the behaviour patterns of the
   community is called socialization. The most fertile time of
   socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which
   individuals develop the skills and knowledge and learn the roles
   necessary to function within their culture and social environment. For
   some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition,
   the most important period of socialization is between the ages of 1 and
   10. But socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly
   different environment, where they must learn a new set of behaviors.

   Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which
   children first learn community norms. Other important influences
   include school, peer groups, mass media, the workplace and government.
   The degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are
   adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others. The norms
   of tolerance, reciprocity and trust are important "habits of the
   heart," as de Tocqueville put it, in an individual's involvement in
   community.

Community development

   Azadi Tower is a town square in modern Iran.
   Azadi Tower is a town square in modern Iran.

   Community development, often linked with Community Work or Community
   Planning, is often formally conducted by non-government
   organisations(NGOs), universities or government agencies to improve the
   social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national
   communities. Less formal efforts, called community building or
   community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people
   by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their
   own communities. These skills often assist in building political power
   through the formation of large social groups working for a common
   agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to
   work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within
   the context of larger social institutions.

   Formal programs conducted by universities are often used to build a
   knowledge base to drive curricula in sociology and community studies.
   The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Centre at
   the University of Chicago and the Saguaro Seminar at the John F.
   Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University are examples of
   national community development in the United States. In The United
   Kingdom, Oxford University has led in providing extensive research in
   the field through its Community Development Journal, used worldwide by
   sociologists and community development practitioners.

   At the intersection between community development and community
   building are a number of programs and organizations with community
   development tools. One example of this is the program of the Asset
   Based Community Development Institute of Northwestern University. The
   institute makes available downloadable tools to assess community assets
   and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations
   that can help in community building. The Institute focuses on helping
   communities develop by "mobilizing neighbourhood assets" — building
   from the inside out rather than the outside in.

Community building and organizing

   M. Scott Peck is of the view that the almost accidental sense of
   community which exists at times of crisis, for example in New York City
   after the September 11, 2001 attacks, can be consciously built. Peck
   believes that the process of "conscious community building" is a
   process of building a shared story, and consensual decision making,
   built upon respect for all individuals and inclusivity of difference.
   He is of the belief that this process goes through four stages:
    1. Pseudo-community: Where participants are "nice with each other",
       playing-safe, and presenting what they feel is the most favourable
       sides of their personalities.
    2. Chaos: When people move beyond the inauthenticity of
       pseudo-community and feel safe enough to present their "shadow"
       selves. This stage places great demands upon the facilitator for
       greater leadership and organisation, but Peck believes that
       "organisations are not communities", and this pressure should be
       resisted.
    3. Emptiness: This stage moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and
       convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of
       acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to us
       all as human beings. Out of this emptiness comes
    4. True community: the process of deep respect and true listening for
       the needs of the other people in this community. This stage Peck
       believes can only be described as "glory" and reflects a deep
       yearning in every human soul for compassionate understanding from
       one's fellows.

   More recently Scott Peck has remarked that building a sense of
   community is easy. It is maintaining this sense of community that is
   difficult in the modern world.

   Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from
   simple events such as potlucks and small book clubs to larger–scale
   efforts such as mass festivals and construction projects that involve
   local participants rather than outside contractors.

Community currencies

   Some communities have developed their own " Local Exchange Trading
   Systems" (LETS) and local currencies, such as the Ithaca Hours system,
   to encourage economic growth and an enhanced sense of community.
   Community Currencies have recently proven valuable in meeting the needs
   of people living in various South American nations, particularly
   Argentina, that recently suffered as a result of the collapse of the
   Argentinian national currency.
   The anti-war affinity group "Collateral Damage" protesting the Iraq war
   The anti-war affinity group "Collateral Damage" protesting the Iraq war

   Community building that is geared toward activism is usually termed
   "community organizing." In these cases, organized community groups seek
   accountability from elected officials and increased direct
   representation within decision-making bodies. Where good-faith
   negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to
   pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including
   picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics.
   The ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto Public Space Committee are
   examples of activist networks committed to shielding local communities
   from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence.

   Community organizing is sometimes focused on more than just resolving
   specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible
   power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally
   throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build
   groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups
   facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the
   general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.

   The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots
   organizing, coalition building, and faith-based community organizing
   (also called "institution-based community organizing," "broad-based
   community organizing" or "congregation-based community organizing").

Community service

   Community service is usually performed in connection with a nonprofit
   organization, but it may also be undertaken under the auspices of
   government, one or more businesses, or by individuals. It is typically
   unpaid and voluntary. However, it can be part of alternative sentencing
   approaches in a justice system and it can be required by educational
   institutions.

Types of community

   Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's "Heart of a Healthy Community"
   seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R. Ecovillage
   Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's "Heart of a Healthy Community"
   seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R. Ecovillage

   From this discussion it is generally recognised that there are three
   types of different usage of the word community
    1. Geographic communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb,
       village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a
       whole. These refer to communities of location.
    2. Communities of culture: range from the local clique, sub-culture,
       ethnic group, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the
       global community cultures of today. They may be included as
       communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail
       aged people.
    3. Community organisations: range from informal family or kinship
       networks, to more formal incorporated associations, political
       decision making structures, economic enterprises, or professional
       associations at a small, national or international scale.

   Communities are nested; one community can contain another - for example
   a geographic community may contain a number of ethnic communities.

Location

   Possibly the most common usage of the word "community" indicates a
   large group living in close proximity. Examples of local community
   include:
     * A municipality is an administrative local area generally composed
       of a clearly defined territory and commonly referring to a town or
       village. Although large cities are also municipalities, they are
       often thought of as a collection of communities, due to their
       diversity.
     * A neighbourhood is a geographically localized community, often
       within a larger city or suburb.
     * A planned community is one that was designed from scratch and grew
       up more or less following the plan. Several of the world's capital
       cities are planned cities, notably Washington, D.C., in the United
       States, Canberra in Australia, and Brasília in Brazil. It was also
       common during the European colonization of the Americas to build
       according to a plan either on fresh ground or on the ruins of
       earlier Amerindian cities.

Identity

   In some contexts, "community" indicates a group of people with a common
   identity other than location. Members often interact regularly. Common
   examples in everyday usage include:
     * A "professional community" is a group of people with the same or
       related occupations. Some of those members may join a professional
       society, making a more defined and formalized group. These are also
       sometimes known as communities of practice.
     * A virtual community is a group of people primarily or initially
       communicating or interacting with each other by means of
       information technologies, typically over the Internet, rather than
       in person. These may be either communities of interest, practice or
       communion. (See below.) Research interest is evolving in the
       motivations for contributing to online communities.

Overlaps

   Some communities share both location and other attributes. Members
   choose to live near each other because of one or more common interests.
     * A retirement community is designated and at least usually designed
       for retirees and seniors –- often restricted to those over a
       certain age, such as 55. It differs from a retirement home, which
       is a single building or small complex, by having a number of
       autonomous households.

     * An intentional community is a deliberate residential community with
       a much higher degree of social interaction than other communities.
       The members of an intentional community typically hold a common
       social, political or spiritual vision and share responsibilities
       and resources. Intentional communities include Amish villages,
       ashrams, cohousing, communes, ecovillages, housing cooperatives,
       kibbutzim, and land trusts.

Special nature of human community

   Music in Central Park, a public space
   Music in Central Park, a public space

   Definitions of community as "organisms inhabiting a common environment
   and interacting with one another," while scientifically accurate, do
   not convey the richness, diversity and complexity of human communities.
   Their classification, likewise is almost never precise. Untidy as it
   may be, community is vital for humans. M. Scott Peck expressed this in
   the following way: "There can be no vulnerability without risk; there
   can be no community without vulnerability; there can be no peace, and
   ultimately no life, without community."

   From this it is clear that the concept of the individual is not and
   cannot ever be separated from the concept of community. Without the
   primary community of our family, or the secondary communities discussed
   above, we could not develop stable personalities as individual human
   beings.

   This conveys some of the distinctiveness of human community.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community"
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   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
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