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Claudius

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   Claudius
   Emperor of the Roman Empire
   Reign January 24, 41 - October 13, 54
   Full name Tiberius Claudius Caesar
   Augustus Germanicus
   Born August 1, 10 BC
   Lugdunum
   Died October 13, 54 (poisoned)
   Predecessor Caligula
   Successor Nero, stepson by 4th wife
   Wife/wives Failed betrothals - Aemilia Lepida and Livia Medullina
   Plautia Urgulanilla, divorced for adultery,
   2) Aelia Paetina, divorced;
   3) Valeria Messalina, divorced and executed for treason;
   4) Agrippina the younger
   Issue 1) Claudius Drusus (died in adolescence)
   2) Claudia Antonia
   3) Claudia Octavia
   4) Britannicus
   Dynasty Julio-Claudian
   Father Nero Claudius Drusus
   Mother Antonia Minor

   Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( August 1, 10 BC –
   October 13, 54) (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus before his
   accession) was the fourth Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty,
   ruling from January 24, 41 to his death in 54. Born in Lugdunum in Gaul
   (modern-day Lyon, France), to Drusus and Antonia Minor, he was the
   first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy.

   Claudius was considered a rather unlikely man to become emperor. He was
   reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and his family had
   virtually excluded him from public office until his consulship with his
   nephew Caligula in 37. This infirmity may have saved him from the fate
   of many other Roman nobles during the purges of Tiberius' and
   Caligula's reigns. His very survival led to his being declared emperor
   after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult
   male of his family. Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius
   proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works.
   His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the conquest of
   Britain. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public
   trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. However, he was seen as
   vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius
   was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths
   of many senators. He also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal
   life, one of which led to his murder. These events damaged his
   reputation among the ancient writers. More recent historians have
   revised this opinion.

Claudius' affliction and personality

   Detail of statue of Claudius as Jupiter.
   Enlarge
   Detail of statue of Claudius as Jupiter.

                                         CAPTION: Roman imperial dynasties
                                                    Julio-Claudian Dynasty


                                   Augustus
     Children
        Natural - Julia the Elder
        Adoptive - Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Agrippa Postumus, Tiberius
                                   Tiberius
     Children
        Natural - Julius Caesar Drusus
        Adoptive - Germanicus
                                   Caligula
     Children
        Natural - Julia Drusilla
        Adoptive - Tiberius Gemellus
                                   Claudius
     Children
        Natural - Claudia Antonia, Claudia Octavia, Britannicus
        Adoptive - Nero
                                     Nero
     Children
        Natural - Claudia Augusta

   The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of
   Claudius' affliction in relatively good detail. His knees were weak and
   gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was
   confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when excited. The Stoic Seneca
   states in his Apocolocyntosis that Claudius' voice belonged to no land
   animal, and that his hands were weak as well. However, he showed no
   physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was
   a tall, well-built figure of dignitas. When angered or stressed, his
   symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this improved upon his
   accession to the throne. Claudius himself claimed that he had
   exaggerated his ailments to save his own life.

   The modern diagnosis has changed several times in the past century.
   Prior to World War II, infantile paralysis (or polio) was widely
   accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in Robert Graves'
   Claudius novels, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain
   many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory
   implicates cerebral palsy as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon.

   On the personal front, the ancient historians describe Claudius as
   generous and lowbrow, a man who cracked lame jokes, laughed
   uncontrollably, and lunched with the plebs. They also paint him as
   bloodthirsty and cruel, overly fond of both gladiatorial combat and
   executions, and very quick to anger (though Claudius himself
   acknowledged this last trait, and apologized publicly for his temper).
   To them he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his
   wives and freedmen. But at the same time they portray him as paranoid
   and apathetic, dull and easily confused. The extant works of Claudius
   present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent,
   scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eye to
   detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the
   discovery of his " Letter to the Alexandrians" in the last century,
   much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where
   the truth lies.

Family and early life

   Claudius was born Tiberius Claudius Drusus on August 1, 10 BC, in
   Lugdunum, Gaul, on the day of the dedication of an altar to Augustus.
   He was the third living child of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia
   Minor, the two older children being Germanicus and Livilla. Antonia may
   have had two other children as well, but these died young.

   His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Caesar
   Augustus' sister. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus' third
   wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived
   the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of
   Augustus.

   In 9 BC, Drusus unexpectedly died, possibly from an injury. Claudius
   was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When
   Claudius' afflictions became evident, the relationship with his family
   turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a
   standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his
   grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was little kinder, and
   often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the
   care of a "former mule-driver" to keep him disciplined, under the logic
   that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power.
   However, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms
   apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly
   interests. In 7, Livy was hired in to tutor him in history, with the
   assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the
   latter and the philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according to a
   letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory. Expectations
   were raised as to his future.
   A sestertius of Claudius. The obverse image is of Spes (Hope) Augusta,
   first issued to commemorate the birth of his son in 41.
   Enlarge
   A sestertius of Claudius. The obverse image is of Spes (Hope) Augusta,
   first issued to commemorate the birth of his son in 41.

   In the end, it was his work as a budding historian that destroyed his
   early career. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, Claudius began
   work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too
   critical of Octavian. In either case, it was far too early for such an
   account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was
   Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to
   it, and this may have proved to them that Claudius was not fit for
   public office. He could not be trusted to toe the existing party line.
   When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over
   the wars of the second triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done,
   and his family pushed him to the background. When the Arch of Pavia was
   erected to honour the imperial clan in 8, Claudius' name (now Tiberius
   Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to paterfamilias of
   Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the
   edge—past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius, and Germanicus'
   children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by
   Claudius himself decades later, and he originally did not appear at
   all.

   When Augustus died in 14, Claudius—then twenty-three—appealed to his
   uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the cursus honorum. Tiberius, the
   new emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments.
   Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new
   emperor was not any more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope
   of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.

   Despite the disdain of the imperial family, it seems that from very
   early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the
   equites, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his
   house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense.
   They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the senate.
   Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During
   the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son, Drusus,
   Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again
   suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life.
   However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror
   of the Praetorian Sejanus was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay
   this possibility.

   After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor Caligula recognized
   Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37
   in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father
   Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle:
   playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money,
   humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to Cassius
   Dio, as well a possible surviving portrait, Claudius became very sickly
   and thin by the end of Caligula's reign—most likely due to stress.

Accession as emperor

   On January 24, 41, Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based
   conspiracy (including Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several
   Senators). There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the
   assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the
   plot—particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before
   the event. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter,
   it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the
   conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following the
   murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved
   noblemen, including friends of his. Concerned for his survival, he fled
   to the palace to hide himself. According to tradition, a Praetorian
   named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared
   him imperator. A section of the guard may have planned in advance to
   seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that
   they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was
   spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection.
   Claudius issued this denarius type to emphasize his clemency after
   Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddess Pax-Nemesis,
   representing subdued vengeance, would be used on the coins of many
   later emperors.
   Enlarge
   Claudius issued this denarius type to emphasize his clemency after
   Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddess Pax-Nemesis,
   representing subdued vengeance, would be used on the coins of many
   later emperors.

   The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but
   this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be
   the new Princeps. When they heard of praetorians' claim, they demanded
   that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused,
   rightly sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some
   historians, particularly Josephus, claim that Claudius was directed in
   his actions by the Judean King Herod Agrippa. However, an earlier
   version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role —
   so it is not known how large a hand he had in things. Eventually the
   Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly
   all the assassins.

   Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential
   usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian
   family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen — the name still
   carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped
   the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as paterfamilias of the
   Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. While he
   had never been adopted by Augustus or his successors, he was the
   grandson of Octavia, and so felt he had the right. He also adopted the
   name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their
   accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" in order to display the
   connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother
   Livia in order to highlight her position as wife of the divine
   Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of
   Drusus) in his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary
   father and lay claim to his reputation.

   Because he was proclaimed emperor on the initiative of the Praetorian
   Guard instead of the Senate — the first emperor thus proclaimed —
   Claudius' repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as
   Seneca). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as
   a means to secure army loyalty. This is not entirely how it seems.
   Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in
   their wills, and on the death of Caligula the same would have been
   expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the
   guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the praetorians in the
   early part of his reign.

   Expansion of the empire
   Model of the Temple of the divine Claudius, erected in Colchester after
   the conquest of Britain.
   Enlarge
   Model of the Temple of the divine Claudius, erected in Colchester after
   the conquest of Britain.

   Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since
   the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Mauretania, Noricum,
   Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judea were annexed during his term. The most
   important conquest was that of Britannia.

   In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain
   (Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an
   attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth —
   particularly mines and slaves. It was also a safe haven for Gallic
   rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer.
   Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial
   offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter
   must have made an impression on the Britons when they were used in the
   capture of Camulodunum. He left after 16 days, but remained in the
   provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph for his
   efforts, as only members of the imperial family were allowed such
   honours. Claudius later lifted this restriction for some of his
   conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but
   only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself.
   When the British general, Caractacus, was finally captured in 50,
   Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land
   provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander, but
   one that must have calmed the British opposition.

   Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens,
   an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus'
   death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of
   Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship. These colonies
   were often made out of existing communities, especially those with
   elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several
   colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the empire in
   order to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.

Judicial and legislative affairs

   Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his
   reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that
   his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He
   was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention
   to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court
   session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional
   breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the
   city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been
   required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the
   docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to
   ensure a more experienced jury pool.

   Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of
   Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Troy from
   taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of Alexandria sent him
   two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two
   communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians,"
   which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to
   move in more families en masse. According to Josephus, he then
   reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the empire. An
   investigator of Claudius' discovered that many old Roman citizens based
   in the modern city of Trento were not in fact citizens. The emperor
   issued a declaration that they would be considered to hold citizenship
   from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major
   problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false
   assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense.
   Similarly, any freedmen found to be impersonating knights were sold
   back into slavery.

   Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a
   number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments.
   Two famous medical examples are one promoting Yew juice as a cure for
   snakebite, and another promoting public flatulence for good health. One
   of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters
   had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of Aesculapius to die,
   and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who
   recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who
   chose to kill slaves rather than take the risk would be charged with
   murder.

Public works

   The Porta Maggiore in Rome
   Enlarge
   The Porta Maggiore in Rome

   Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in
   the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the Aqua
   Claudia, begun by Caligula, and the Anio Novus. These entered the city
   in 52 and met at the famous Porta Maggiore. He also restored a third,
   the Aqua Virgo.

   He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the
   provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal
   leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to
   Germany — both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a
   navigable canal on the Tiber, leading to Portus, his new port just
   north of Ostia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two
   moles and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the
   effect of reducing flooding in Rome.

   The port at Ostia was part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain
   shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The
   other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants
   who were willing to risk traveling to Egypt in the off-season. He also
   granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and
   exemption from the Lex Papia-Poppaea, a law that regulated marriage. In
   addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food,
   and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or famine.

   The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable
   land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the Fucine lake,
   which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable
   year-round. A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a
   failure. The tunnel was not large enough to carry the water, and
   crooked, which caused it to back up when opened. The draining of the
   lake was not a bad idea, and many other emperors and potentates
   considered it, including the emperors Hadrian and Trajan, and Holy
   Roman Emperor Frederick II in the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved
   by the Prince Torlonia in the 19th century. He expanded the Claudian
   tunnel to three times its original size.

Claudius and the Senate

   Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great
   pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor sat
   amongst the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he
   sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as Tribune. He
   refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at
   the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He
   allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time
   since Augustus. He also put the imperial provinces of Macedonia and
   Achaea back under Senate control.

   Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient,
   representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to
   debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a
   surviving speech:

     "If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once
     and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not
     accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you
     wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not
     forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you
     may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate
     that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls
     word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely
     say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should
     announce 'We debated'."

   It is not known if this plea had any effect on discourse.
   A bronze As issued during Claudius' reign. Note the "SC" (senatus
   consultum} mark on the reverse, meaning issued with the Senate's
   approval.
   Enlarge
   A bronze As issued during Claudius' reign. Note the "SC" (senatus
   consultum} mark on the reverse, meaning issued with the Senate's
   approval.

   In 47 he assumed the office of Censor with Lucius Vitellius, which had
   been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many
   senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed
   respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he
   sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The Lyons Tablet
   preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he
   addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their
   disdain of these men. He also increased the number of Patricians by
   adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he
   followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Caesar.

   Despite this, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many
   plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the
   historical accounts. As a result, Claudius was forced to reduce the
   Senate's power for efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned
   over to an imperial Procurator after construction of the port.
   Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned
   over to imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further
   resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the
   emperor.

   Several coup attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in
   the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in
   Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a
   large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and
   Scribonianus, the governor of Dalmatia and gained quite a few
   senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance
   of Scribonianus' troops, and the suicide of the main conspirators. Many
   other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned.
   Claudius' son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a
   conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the
   consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In
   46, Asinius Gallus, the grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Statilius
   Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own
   freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for
   unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and
   that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However,
   Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on
   the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge
   must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the
   throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the
   Statilius Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took
   place before Claudius' term as Censor, and may have induced him to
   overlook the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the
   year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in the section discussing
   Claudius's third wife, Messalina. Suetonius states that a total of 35
   senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius'
   reign. Needless to say, the necessary responses to these conspiracies
   could not have helped Senate-emperor relations.

The Secretariat and centralization of powers

   A sardonyx cameo of Claudius.
   Enlarge
   A sardonyx cameo of Claudius.

   Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the
   day-to-day running of the empire. He was, however, forced to increase
   their role as the powers of the Princeps became more centralized and
   the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the
   senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the
   senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve
   under him, as if they were not peers.

   The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under
   the leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of
   correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus
   became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for
   miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution
   for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the emperor,
   as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the
   conquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, the senators
   were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. If
   freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it
   would not be hard for them to manipulate the emperor. This is exactly
   the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same
   sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius. He was
   similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies
   where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous
   inclinations, the emperor did punish them with just force, as in the
   case of Polybius and Pallas' brother, Felix. There is no evidence that
   the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise
   and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in
   control throughout.

   Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did
   manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes
   that several of them were richer than Crassus, the richest man of the
   Republican era.

Religious reforms and games

   Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms,
   felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had
   strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused
   the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity,
   saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to
   festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by
   Caligula. He reinstituted old observances and archaic language.
   Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the
   city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the
   Eleusinian mysteries which had been practiced by so many during the
   Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time
   rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as haruspices) as a
   replacement. He was especially hard on Druidism, because of its
   incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its proselytizing
   activities. It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews
   from Rome, probably because the appearance of Christianity had caused
   unrest within the Jewish community. Claudius opposed proselytizing in
   any religion, even in those regions where he allowed natives to worship
   freely. The results of all these efforts were recognized even by
   Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in his satire.

   Claudius performed the Secular games, marking the 800th anniversary of
   the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a
   century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was
   110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either
   reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted
   draining of the Fucine lake, as well as many other public games and
   shows.

Death, deification, and reputation

   The general consensus of the ancients is that Claudius was murdered by
   poison — possibly contained in mushrooms — and died in the early hours
   of October 13, 54. There are various accounts, some of which implicate
   Halotus, his taster, and some Xenophon, his doctor as the administrator
   of the poison. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a
   single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned
   again. All implicate his final wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Now
   that Britannicus was approaching the age of majority, there was no need
   for Nero to be heir in case of Claudius' death. There was now no chance
   of a minor ascending the throne and setting off civil war. Thus,
   Claudius began to talk of divorce. Agrippina most likely acted to
   ensure the succession of Nero before changes could be made. In modern
   times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or
   merely succumbed to illness or old age. Considering the longevity of
   his relatives who reached middle age (his grandmother Livia died at 85
   or 86, his uncle Tiberius reached age 77, and his mother Antonia
   committed suicide at 72) a death from old age seems unlikely. The
   universality of the murder story in the ancient texts also lends
   credence to the crime. Claudius' ashes were interred in the Mausoleum
   of Augustus on October 24, after a funeral in the manner of Augustus.
   Model of ancient Rome showing the Temple of Claudius, built by
   Vespasian on the site of Nero's Golden House. The Aqua Claudia aqueduct
   runs next to it, and the Colosseum sits adjacent.
   Enlarge
   Model of ancient Rome showing the Temple of Claudius, built by
   Vespasian on the site of Nero's Golden House. The Aqua Claudia aqueduct
   runs next to it, and the Colosseum sits adjacent.

   Claudius was deified by the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard
   this homage by Agrippina as cynical should note that, cynical or not,
   such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius
   been "hated", as some commentators, both modern and historic,
   characterize him. Moreover, though Claudius's divinity was annulled by
   Nero, it was later restored by the "good" emperor Vespasian, who had
   been a general in the British conquest. Despite this, many of Claudius'
   less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men. His will was
   suppressed and never read. Claudius had changed it shortly before death
   to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just
   Britannicus, who would be considered a man in a few months. Agrippina
   had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now
   murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to
   burn all of Claudius' correspondence - most likely so it could not be
   used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus
   Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to
   history. Nero and his circle wasted no time vilifying Claudius; Nero
   even criticized him in his eulogy. Most of Claudius' laws and edicts
   were annulled, under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to
   have meant them. This opinion of Claudius, that he was indeed an old
   idiot, remained the official one for the duration of Nero's reign.
   Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at
   all, and realigned with his birth family.

   The Flavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a
   different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up
   their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians.
   They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they
   were good associated with good. Claudius' temple was built over Nero's
   golden house. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his
   natural son Britannicus - who had been a friend of the emperor Titus.
   However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize
   their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased.
   Instead, he was put down with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty.

   The main ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio all
   wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators
   or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the
   princeps, as well as the senator's views of the emperor. This resulted
   in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the
   official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to
   rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the
   exception of Augustus' letters which had been gathered earlier) and
   does not quote the emperor. Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous
   figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively
   good works to his retinue. Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow
   senators and fit each of the emperors into a simple mold of his
   choosing. He wrote Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot - going so
   far as to hide his use of Claudius as a source and omit Claudius'
   character from his works. Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet
   speech is edited to be devoid of the emperor's personality. Dio was
   less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources.
   Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those
   he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.

   As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the
   historian's accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian
   subjects became unfashionable. In the second century, Pertinax, who
   shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing any commemoration of
   Claudius. In the third century, the emperor Claudius II Gothicus
   usurped his name. When Claudius Gothicus died, he was also deified,
   replacing Claudius in the Roman pantheon.

Marriages and personal life

   Claudius' love life was unusual for an upper-class Roman of his day. As
   Edward Gibbon mentions, of the first fifteen emperors, "Claudius was
   the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct" - the
   implication being that he was the only one not to take men or boys as
   lovers. Gibbons based this on Suetonius' factual statement that "He had
   a great passion for women, but had no interest in men." Suetonius and
   the other ancient authors actually used this against Claudius. They
   accused him of being dominated by these same women and wives, of being
   uxorious, and of being a womanizer.

   Claudius married four times. His first marriage, to Plautia
   Urgulanilla, occurred after two failed betrothals. The first was to his
   distant cousin Aemilia Lepida, but was broken for political reasons.
   The second was to Livia Medullina, which ended with the bride's sudden
   death on their wedding day. Urgulanilla was a relation of Livia's
   confidant Urgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son,
   Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately, Drusus died of asphyxiation in his
   early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to the daughter of Sejanus.
   Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of
   murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after
   the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father
   was one of his own freedmen. Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius
   married Aelia Paetina, a relation of Sejanus. They had a daughter,
   Claudia Antonia. He later divorced her after the marriage became a
   political liability (although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due
   to emotional and mental abuse by Aelia).

   In 38 or early 39, Claudius married Valeria Messalina, who was his
   first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle.
   Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter Claudia Octavia. A
   son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as
   Britannicus, was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage
   ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a
   nymphomaniac who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius — Tacitus states
   she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have
   the most sexual partners in a night. — and manipulated his policies in
   order to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover Gaius Silius
   in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia. Sources disagree as
   to whether or not she divorced the emperor first, and whether the
   intention was to usurp the throne. Scramuzza, in his biography,
   suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was
   doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and
   protecting her children. The historian Tacitus suggests that Claudius's
   ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair
   before it reached such a critical point. Whatever the case, the result
   was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle.
   Claudius made the Praetorians promise to kill him if he ever married
   again.
   Agrippina and Nero.
   Enlarge
   Agrippina and Nero.

   Despite this declaration, Claudius did marry once more. The ancient
   sources tell that his freedmen pushed three candidates, Caligula's
   former wife Lollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wife Aelia, and
   Claudius's niece Agrippina the younger. According to Suetonius,
   Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. The truth is likely more
   political. The coup attempt by Silius probably made Claudius realize
   the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the
   Julian family. This weakness was compacted by the fact that he did not
   have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was
   one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius
   Domitius Ahenobarbus (later known as Nero) was one of the last males of
   the imperial family. Future coup attempts could rally around the pair,
   and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested
   in recent times that Senate may have pushed for the marriage to end the
   feud between the Julian and Claudian branches. This feud dated back to
   Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of her
   husband Germanicus, actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any
   case, Claudius accepted Agrippina, and later adopted the newly mature
   Nero as his son.

   Nero was made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, married to
   Octavia and heavily promoted. This was not as unusual as it seems to
   people acquainted with modern hereditary monarchies. Barbara Levick
   notes that Augustus had named his grandson Postumus Agrippa and his
   stepson Tiberius joint heirs. Tiberius named his great-nephew Caligula
   joint heir with his grandson Tiberius Gemellus. Adoption of adults or
   near adults was an old tradition in Rome when a suitable natural adult
   heir was unavailable. This was the case during Britannicus' minority.
   S.V. Oost suggests that Claudius looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law
   to protect his own reign. Possible usurpers could note that there was
   no adult to replace him. Faustus Sulla, married to his daughter
   Antonia, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side — not
   close enough to the imperial family to prevent doubts (that didn't stop
   others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few
   years later). Besides which, he was the half brother of Messalina, and
   at this time those wounds were still fresh. Nero was more popular with
   the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct
   descendant of Augustus.

Scholarly works and their impact

   Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano states
   that during the reign of Tiberius — which covers the peak of Claudius'
   literary career — it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The
   trend among the young historians was to either write about the new
   empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar
   who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused
   him so much grief, his major works included an Etruscan history and
   eight volumes on Carthaginian history, as well as an Etruscan
   Dictionary and a book on dice playing. Despite the general avoidance of
   the imperatorial era, he penned a defense of Cicero against the charges
   of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine both
   the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war
   history. He proposed a reform of the Latin alphabet by the addition of
   three new letters, two of which served the function of the modern
   letters W and Y. He officially instituted the change during his
   censorship, but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to
   revive the old custom of putting dots between different words
   (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an
   eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in
   taste. Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) heavily
   criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches, it is
   not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge.
   The Claudian letters
   Enlarge
   The Claudian letters

   Unfortunately, none of the actual works survive. They do live on as
   sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
   Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once, and must have used it as
   a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' own arguments for the
   orthographical innovations mentioned above, and may have used him for
   some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the
   source for numerous passages of Pliny's Natural History.

   The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech
   on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical
   to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. The detail of his speech
   borders on the pedantic, a common mark of all his extant works, and he
   goes into long digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep
   knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not help
   but share. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based
   on plans first suggested by Julius Caesar. Levick believes this
   emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies. His
   censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors,
   particularly Appius Claudius Caecus, and he used the office to put into
   place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when
   many of his religious reforms took effect and his building efforts
   greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the
   office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his
   academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans)
   that his ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus had used the censorship to
   introduce the letter "R" and so used his own term to introduce his new
   letters.

Claudius in fiction

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