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Chola dynasty

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General history

                                  CAPTION: சோழர் குலம்
                                                             Chola dynasty

                                         Image:LocationChola_empire_sm.png
                         Chola Empire at the height of its power (c. 1050)
                                                   Official Language Tamil
                                 Capitals Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur,
                                  Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur
                                                    Gangaikonda Cholapuram
                                                       Government Monarchy
                                   Preceding state of Early Cholas Unknown
                                        Succeeding states Pandyas, Hoysala

   The Chola dynasty (Tamil: சோழர் குலம், IPA: ['ʧoːɻə]) was a Tamil
   dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century.
   The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River.
   Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while
   Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were famous
   emperors of the medieval Cholas.

   The Cholas were at the height of their power during the tenth, eleventh
   and twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and
   his son Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and
   cultural power in Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the
   islands of the Maldives in the South to as far North as the banks of
   the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered
   peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the
   islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to
   North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of
   Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided kingdoms of the
   Malay Archipelago. The power of the Cholas declined around the 12th
   century with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming
   to an end towards the end of the 13th century.

   The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil
   literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some
   great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were
   avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as
   places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They
   pioneered a centralised form of government and established a
   disciplined bureaucracy.

Origins

   An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the
   Tiger emblem of the cholas
   Enlarge
   An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the
   Tiger emblem of the cholas

   There is no definite information on the origins of the word Chola.
   Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150) indicate that the
   earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100. Parimelalagar, the
   annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this could be
   the name of an ancient clan. The most commonly held view is that this
   is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the ruling family or clan of
   immemorial antiquity. Attempts have been made to connect the word with
   the Sanskrit Kala (black) and with Kola, which in the early days
   designated the dark coloured pre-Aryan population of Southern India in
   general.

   On the history of Cholas there is very little authentic written
   evidence available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a
   lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as
   ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts,
   temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available
   information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the
   Sangam Period. There are also brief notices on the Chola country and
   its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the
   Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus is a work by an
   anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian ( 81 –
   96) and contains very little information of the Chola country. Writing
   half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about
   the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Mahavamsa, a
   Buddhist text, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants
   of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants. Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars
   of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BC – 232 BC) inscriptions, where they are
   mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were
   on friendly terms with him.

History

            List of Chola kings
                Early Cholas
   Ilamcetcenni           Karikala Chola
   Nedunkilli             Nalankilli
   Killivalavan           Kopperuncholan
   Kocengannan            Perunarkilli
          Interregnum - c 200-848
              Medieval Cholas
   Vijayalaya Chola       848-871(?)
   Aditya I               871-907
   Parantaka Chola I      907-950
   Gandaraditya           950-957
   Arinjaya Chola         956-957
   Sundara Chola          957-970
   Uttama Chola           970-985
   Rajaraja Chola I       985-1014
   Rajendra Chola I       1012-1044
   Rajadhiraja Chola      1018-1054
   Rajendra Chola II      1051-1063
   Virarajendra Chola     1063-1070
   Athirajendra Chola     1067-1070
              Chalukya Cholas
   Kulothunga Chola I     1070-1120
   Vikrama Chola          1118-1135
   Kulothunga Chola II    1133-1150
   Rajaraja Chola II      1146-1163
   Rajadhiraja Chola II   1163-1178
   Kulothunga Chola III   1178-1218
   Rajaraja Chola III     1216-1256
   Rajendra Chola III     1246-1279
               Chola Society
   Chola Government       Chola Military
   Chola Art              Chola Literature
   Poompuhar              Urayur
   Gangaikonda Cholapuram Thanjavur
   Telugu Cholas

   The history of the Cholas falls naturally into four periods: the early
   Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of
   the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya
   (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Chalukya Chola
   dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh
   century.

Early Cholas

   The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are
   mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that
   this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era.
   The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled,
   and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot
   be derived. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the
   princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature
   that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked
   into connected history.

   The Sangam literature is also full of legends about the mythical Chola
   kings. The Cholas were looked on as descended from the sun. These myths
   speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage
   Agastya, whose devotion brought the Kaveri River into existence. Two
   names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known from the
   Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan. There is no sure
   means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations
   with one another and with many other princelings of about the same
   period. Urayur (near Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital.

Interregnum

   Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries
   from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas
   and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the
   Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms
   and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the
   Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century. Little is known of the
   fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the
   accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the ninth century.

   Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the
   transformations that came over this ancient line of kings during this
   long interval. What is certain is that when the power of the Cholas
   fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the
   north and south of them, this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and
   patronage under their more successful rivals. The Pallavas and Pandyas
   seem to have left the Cholas alone for the most part; however, possibly
   out of regard for their reputation, they accepted Chola princesses in
   marriage and employed in their service Chola princes who were willing
   to accept it. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in
   Kanchipuram during 639 – 640 writes about the 'kingdom of Culi-ya'.
   Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukya of this period
   mention conquering 'the Chola country'. Despite this loss in influence
   and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the
   territory around Urayur, their old capital. Vijayalaya when he rose to
   prominence hailed from this geographical area.

   Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day
   Andhra Pradesh. These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early
   Sangam Cholas. However, nothing definite is known of their connection
   to the early Cholas. It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas
   migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom
   of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and
   Pallavas.

Medieval Cholas

   While there is little reliable information on the Cholas during the
   period between the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is an
   abundance of materials from diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and the
   Chalukya Chola dynasties. A large number of stone inscriptions by the
   Cholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas and Chalukyas, and
   copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing the history
   of Cholas of that period.

   Around 850, Vijayalaya rose from obscurity to take an opportunity
   arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured
   Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval
   Cholas.
   Chola territories during Rajendra Chola I, c. 1030 Enlarge
   Chola territories during Rajendra Chola I, c. 1030

   The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the
   medieval period. Great kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra
   Chola I occupied the throne, and through their leadership and vision
   took extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a
   Tamil kingdom. At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island
   of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The
   kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges
   acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered
   Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.

   Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the
   ever-resilient Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola
   occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes who tried to win independence for
   their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the
   Chalukyas in the western Deccan. This period saw constant warfare
   between the Cholas and these antagonists. A balance of power existed
   between the Chalukyas and the Cholas, and there was a tacit acceptance
   of the Tungabhadra River as the boundary between the two empires.
   However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the
   growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.

Chalukya Cholas

   Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings
   based around Vengi located on the south banks of the River Godavari
   began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi.
   Rajaraja Chola's daughter married prince Vimaladitya. Rajendra Chola's
   daughter was also married to an Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja
   Narendra.

   Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil
   disturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne
   starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi
   king Rajaraja Narendra.
   Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c. 1120 Enlarge
   Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c. 1120

   The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola
   I and Vikrama Chola; however, the decline of the Chola power
   practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the
   island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.
   Around 1118 they lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king
   Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the
   growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the
   Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration
   prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil
   war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During
   the last century of the Cholas, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed
   in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the
   Pandyas.

   The Cholas, under Rajendra Chola III, experienced continuous trouble.
   At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas
   replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the north. The
   local feudatories were also becoming sufficiently confident to
   challenge the central Chola authority. One feudatory, the Kadava
   chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held the Chola king as hostage for
   sometime. The Cholas were exposed to assaults from within and without.
   The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power. The
   Hoysalas in the west threatened the existence of the Chola empire.
   Rajendra tried to survive by aligning with the two powers in turn. At
   the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan Empire was at the height of
   prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of
   the foreign observers. The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279.
   There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another
   Chola prince. The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the
   Pandyan empire, though many small chieftains continued to claim the
   title "Chola" well into the 15th century.

Government and society

Chola country

   According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the
   region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, and the
   Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu state. The Kaveri River and its
   tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that
   gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys.
   The river Kaveri, which was also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a
   special place in the culture of Cholas. The unfailing annual floods in
   the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the
   whole nation took part, from the king to the lowliest peasant.

   Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port
   town. Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as
   the most important centres of Cholas. These two cosmopolitan towns
   became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths,
   including Buddhism. Roman galleys found their way in to these ports.
   Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been
   found near the Kaveri delta.

   The other major towns were Thanjavur, Urayur and Kudanthai. After
   Rajendra Chola moved his kingdom to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur
   lost prestige. The later Chola kings of the Chalukya Chola dynasty
   moved around their country frequently and made cities such as
   Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram their regional capitals.

Nature of government

   In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first
   time, brought under a single government, when a serious attempt was
   made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The
   Cholas system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age.
   However, there was little in common between the primitive and somewhat
   tribal chieftaincy of the earlier time, and the almost Byzantine
   royalty— Rajaraja Chola—and his successors with its numerous palaces,
   and the pomp and circumstance associated with the royal court.

   Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south
   Indian peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and
   bounded to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra River
   and the Vengi frontier. Although Vengi had a separate political
   existence, it was so closely connected to the Chola Empire that, for
   all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up to the banks of
   the Godavari river.
   Extent of Chola empire c. 1014 Enlarge
   Extent of Chola empire c. 1014

   Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals.
   However both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional
   capitals, in which occasional courts were held. The king was the
   supreme commander and a benevolent dictator. His administrative role
   consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when
   representations were made to him. A powerful bureaucracy assisted the
   king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to
   the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense,
   the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and
   in his belief in Dharma—a sense of fairness and justice. All Chola
   kings built temples and endowed great wealth to them. The temples acted
   not only as places of worship but as centres of economic activity,
   benefiting their entire community.

Local government

   Every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages
   constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram,
   depending on the area. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.
   These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout
   the Chola period.

   Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes
   were settled at the village level. Punishment for minor crimes were in
   the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some
   charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were
   punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard
   and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases
   was either execution or the confiscation of property.

Foreign trade

   Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian
   architectural influences
   Enlarge
   Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian
   architectural influences

   The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending
   their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end
   of the 9th century, the countries of southern India had developed
   extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, being in
   possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular
   India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of
   China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the
   Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were the main trading
   partners.

   Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian
   (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077, and that the king
   of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. It is possible
   that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" ( Kulothunga Chola I).
   This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the
   visitors, who returned with 81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange
   for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices.

   A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a
   merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the
   five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a
   famous merchant guild in the Chola country. The inscription is dated
   1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the
   Chola period.

Chola society

   There is little information on the size and the density of the
   population during the Chola reign. The overwhelming stability in the
   core Chola region enabled the people to lead a very productive and
   contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil
   disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign. However, there
   were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.

   The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a presence of
   high level of literacy and education in the society. The text in these
   inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented
   artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered
   important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some
   village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and
   writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic
   educational system for the masses. Vocational education was through
   hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his
   sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Sanskrit
   education was restricted to the Brahmins. Religious monasteries (matha
   or gatika) were centres of learning, which were supported by the
   government.

Cultural contributions

   Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple
   Enlarge
   Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple

   Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence
   in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola
   period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier
   age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic
   temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never
   before achieved in India.

   The Cholas excelled in maritime activity in both military and the
   mercantile fields. Their conquest of Kadaram ( Kedah) and the
   Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese
   Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Many of the
   surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today
   throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas.

Art

   The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava
   dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.
   They built numerous temples throughout their kingdom such as the
   Brihadeshvara Temple. Aditya I built a number of Siva temples along the
   banks of the river Kaveri. These temples were not on a large scale
   until the end of the 10th century.
   Airavateswarar Temple, Darasuram c. 1200 Enlarge
   Airavateswarar Temple, Darasuram c. 1200

   Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the
   genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The maturity and
   grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression
   in the two temples of Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The
   magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a
   fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja.
   The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the
   apex of South Indian architecture.

   The temple of Gangaikondcholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was
   intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030,
   only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in much the same
   style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more
   affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.
   Chola bronze from the 11th century. Siva in the form of Ardhanarisvara
   Enlarge
   Chola bronze from the 11th century. Siva in the form of Ardhanarisvara

   The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.
   Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the
   temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various
   forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints.
   Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established
   by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11^th
   and the 12^th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The
   best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine
   Dancer.

Literature

   The age of the Imperial Cholas ( 850– 1200) was the golden age of Tamil
   culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola inscriptions
   cite many works, and it is a tragedy that most of them have been lost
   to us,

   The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the
   construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and
   Viashnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished
   as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.
   Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkadevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among
   notable by non-Hindu authors. The art of Tirutakkadevar is marked by
   all the qualities of great poetry. It is considered as the model for
   Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavatharam.

   Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. His
   Ramavatharam is the greatest epic in Tamil Literature, and although the
   author states that he followed Valmiki, his work is no mere translation
   or simple adaptation of the Sanskrit epic: Kamban imports into his
   narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of
   Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.

   Jayamkondar’s masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative
   poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious
   conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I’s war
   in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but
   the gruesome details of the field. The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was
   a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I. Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Solan
   Ula a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king. He served at the
   courts of three of his successors.

   The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into
   the Chola period and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books
   was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10^th
   century. However, relatively few works on Vaishnavite religion were
   composed during the Chola period, possibly because of the apparent
   animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Chaluka Chola monarchs.

Religion

   Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
   York City
   Enlarge
   Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
   York City

   In general, Cholas were the adherents of Saivism and Hinduism.
   Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism
   and Jainism as were the kings, Pallava and Pandya. Even the early
   Cholas followed a version of the classical Hindu faith. There is
   evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola’s faith in the then embryonic
   Vedic Hinduism in the Tamil country. Kocengannan, another early Chola,
   was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a
   saint.

   Later Cholas were also staunch Saivites, although there was a sense of
   toleration towards other sects and religions. Parantaka I and Sundara
   Chola endowed and built temples for both Siva and Vishnu. Rajaraja
   Chola I even patronised Buddhists, and built the Chudamani Vihara (a
   Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya
   Sailendra king.

   During the period of Chalukya Cholas, there were instances of
   intolerance towards Vaishnavites—especially towards Ramanuja, the
   leader of the Vaishnavites. This intolerance led to persecution and
   Ramanuja went into exile in the Chalukya country. He led a popular
   upraising that resulted in the assassination of Athirajendra Chola.
   Kulothunga Chola II is reported to have removed a statue of Vishnu from
   the Siva temple at Chidambaram. There is ample evidence, from the
   inscriptions, that Kulothunga II was a religious fanatic who wanted to
   upset the camaraderie between Hindu faiths in the Chola country.

In popular culture

   The history of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors to
   produce literary and artistic creations during the last several
   decades. These works of popular literature have helped continue the
   memory of the great Cholas in the minds of the Tamil people. The most
   important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of
   Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy.
   Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola.
   Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading up to the ascension of
   Uttama Chola on the Chola throne. Kalki had cleverly utilised the
   confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of
   Sundara Chola. This book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki
   during the mid 1950s. The serialisation lasted for nearly five years
   and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.

   Kalki perhaps laid the foundations for this novel in his earlier
   historical romance Parthiban Kanavu, which deals with the fortunes of
   an imaginary Chola prince Vikraman who was supposed to have lived as a
   feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century.
   The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the
   Cholas were in eclipse before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortune.
   Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the
   early 1950s.

   Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the
   1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set
   during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi
   kingdom, after he was denied the throne that was rightfully his. Kadal
   Pura speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period.
   Sandilyan's earlier work Yavana Rani written in the early 1960s is
   based on the life of Karikala Chola. More recently, Balakumaran wrote
   the opus Udaiyar based on the event surrounding Rajaraja Chola's
   construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.

   There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during
   the 1950s and in 1973, Shivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of
   this play.

   The Chola are also featured in the History of the World boardgame,
   produced by Avalon Hill.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynasty"
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