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China

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Asian Countries;
Countries

   SOS Children works in China. For more information see SOS Children in
   China

          This article is about the Chinese civilization. For the two
          modern states using the name "China", see:

                People's Republic of China (PRC), which governs mainland
                China, Hong Kong, and Macau; or
                Republic of China (ROC), which governs Taiwan, Matsu, and
                Kinmen.

          For other meanings, see China (disambiguation).

   Map of China drawn by the ROC and PRC.
   Enlarge
   Map of China drawn by the ROC and PRC.
   PRC flag before a rapidly modernizing Shanghai.
   Enlarge
   PRC flag before a rapidly modernizing Shanghai.
   ROC flag before a busy commercial street in Taipei.
   Enlarge
   ROC flag before a busy commercial street in Taipei.

   China ( Traditional Chinese: 中國; Simplified Chinese: 中国; Hanyu Pinyin:
   Zhōngguó ; Tongyong Pinyin: Jhongguó) is a cultural region and ancient
   civilization in East Asia. China refers to one of the world's oldest
   civilizations, comprised of states and cultures dating back more than
   six millennia. The stalemate of the last Chinese Civil War following
   World War II has resulted in two separate states using the name
   "China": the People's Republic of China (PRC), administering mainland
   China, Hong Kong, and Macau; and the Republic of China (ROC),
   administering Taiwan and its surrounding islands.

   China has the world's longest continuously used written language
   system. For centuries, China was the world's most advanced
   civilization, and the cultural centre of East Asia, with an impact
   lasting to the present day. China is also the source of many of the
   world's great inventions, including the four great inventions of
   ancient China: Paper, the compass, gunpowder, and printing.

Name

   China is called Zhongguo (also Romanized as Chung-kuo or Jhongguo) in
   Mandarin Chinese. The first character zhōng (中) means "middle" or
   "central," while guó (国 or 國) means "country" or "kingdom". The term
   can be literally translated into English as "Middle Kingdom" or
   "Central Kingdom."

   English and many other languages use various forms of the name "China"
   and the prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-". These forms are thought to be
   probably derived from the name of the Qin Dynasty that first unified
   the country (221-206 BCE). The Qin Dynasty unified the written language
   in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor"
   instead of "King," thus the subsequent Silk Road traders might have
   identified themselves by that name.

History

   China was one of the earliest centres of human civilisation. Chinese
   civilisation was also one of the few to invent writing independently,
   the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), Ancient India (Indus
   Valley Civilization), the Mayan Civilization, and Ancient Egypt. The
   Chinese script is still used today by the Chinese and Japanese, and to
   a lesser extent by Koreans and Vietnamese. This script is one of the
   few logographic scripts still used in the world, and the only major
   one.

Prehistory

   Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China
   date to as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient
   human relative ( hominin) known as Homo erectus. One particular cave in
   Zhoukoudian (near current-day Beijing) has fossilized evidence that
   current dating techniques put at somewhere between 300,000 and 550,000
   years old. Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones
   associated with H. erectus have been studied since the late 18th to
   19th centuries in various areas of Eastern Asia including Indonesia (in
   particular Java) and Malaysia. It is thought that these early hominids
   first evolved in Africa during the Pleistocene epoch. By 2 million
   years ago, the first migration wave of H. erectus settled throughout
   the Old World.

   Fully modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to originally have
   evolved between roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in the area of
   Ethiopia or Southern Africa ( Homo sapiens idaltu). By 100,000 to
   50,000 years ago, modern human beings had settled in all parts of the
   Old World (25,000 to 11,000 BCE in the New World). In the last 100,000
   years, all proto-human populations disappeared as modern humans took
   over or drove other human species into extinction.

   The earliest evidence of fully modern humans in China comes from
   Liujiang County, Guangxi, where a cranium has been found and dated to
   approximately 67,000 years ago. Although much controversy persists over
   the dating of the Liujiang remains , there is a partial skeleton from
   Minatogawa in Okinawa, Japan that has been radiocarbon dated to 18,250
   ±650 to 16,600 ±300 years BP, which implies that modern humans must
   have reached China before that time.

Dynastic rule

   Shang dynasty (Yin) at its height, 1350 BCE
   Enlarge
   Shang dynasty (Yin) at its height, 1350 BCE
   Han Empire, in the year 2 CE
   Enlarge
   Han Empire, in the year 2 CE

   The first dynasty according to Chinese sources was the Xia Dynasty, but
   it was believed to be mythical until scientific excavations were made
   at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province. Since then,
   archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs
   that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same
   locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts.

   The first reliable historical dynasty is the Shang (Yin), which settled
   along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th
   century BCE. The loosely feudal Shang were invaded from the west by the
   Zhou who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BCE. The centralized
   authority of the Zhou was slowly eroded by warlords. In the Spring and
   Autumn period there were many strong, independent states continually
   warring with each other, who deferred to the Zhou state in name only.
   The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty in
   221 BCE, when the office of the Emperor was set up and the Chinese
   language was standardized. This state did not last long, as its
   legalist approach to control soon led to widespread rebellion.

   The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and
   created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that would
   last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded China's territory
   considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia
   and Central Asia, and also established official contacts with the Roman
   Empire via the Silk Road that the dynasty begun in Central Asia. After
   Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the
   highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese
   states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with Japan,
   introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 CE, China was
   reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties,
   China had its golden age. Between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was
   one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in technology,
   literature, and art, although change was gradual. In 1271, Mongol
   leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant
   of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. A peasant named Zhu
   Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty,
   which lasted until 1644. The Manchu-founded Qing Dynasty, which lasted
   until 1912, was the last dynasty in China.

   Regime change was often violent and the new ruling class usually needed
   to take special measures to ensure the loyalty of the overthrown
   dynasty. For example, after the Manchus conquered China, the Manchu
   rulers put into effect measures aimed at subduing the Han Chinese
   identity, such as the requirement for the Han Chinese to wear the
   Manchu hairstyle, the queue.

   In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage
   over the peoples of Central Asia, with which it had been at war for
   several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe.

   In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture
   towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic
   expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time China awoke to the
   significance of the rest of the world, in particular the West. As China
   opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by
   British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain
   weakened the Emperor's control. One result was the Taiping Civil War
   which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was started by Hong Xiuquan, who was
   partly influenced by Christianity and believed himself the son of God
   and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were
   eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human
   history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total
   number of fatalities in the First World War), with some estimates of
   over thirty million. The flow of opium led to more decline, even in the
   face of noble efforts by missionaries such as Hudson Taylor and the
   China Inland Mission to stem the tide. While China was torn by
   continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its
   military with its sights on Korea and Manchuria. Maneuvered by Imperial
   Japan, the Qing tributary state of Korea declared independence from
   Qing China in 1894, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which ended
   in China's humiliating seccession of both Korea and Taiwan to Japan.
   Following these series of defeats, a reform plan for Qing China to
   become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the
   Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress
   Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup
   d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion
   against westerners in Beijing, to which Cixi had secretly supported. By
   the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for
   reform and revolution were heard across the country. Emperor Guangxu
   died under house arrest on November 14, 1908, suspiciously just a day
   before Cixi. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's
   handpicked heir, his young nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong
   Emperor, the last Chinese emperor. Guangxu's consort, who became the
   Empress Dowager Longyu, signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912,
   ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died,
   childless, in 1913.

Republican China

   At the 1924 inauguration of the Whampoa Military Academy, Sun Yat-sen
   delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the ROC's
   national Anthem.
   Enlarge
   At the 1924 inauguration of the Whampoa Military Academy, Sun Yat-sen
   delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the ROC's
   national Anthem.

   On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established, ending the
   Qing Dynasty. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party),
   was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan
   Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary
   cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for
   himself. Yuan then attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a
   new dynasty; however, he died of natural causes before fully taking
   power over all of the Chinese empire.

   After Yuan Shikai's death, China was politically fragmented, with an
   internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national
   government seated in Beijing. Warlords in various regions exercised
   actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s,
   the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country
   under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and
   implementing " political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political
   development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China
   into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant
   one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

   The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945 (part of World War II) forced an
   uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Communists. With the
   surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially
   drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the
   Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947,
   constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil
   War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented on
   the mainland.

The People's Republic of China and the Republic of China

   After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of
   China controlled most of Mainland China. On October 1, 1949, they
   established the People's Republic of China, laying claim as the
   successor state of the ROC. The central government of the ROC was
   forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan. Major armed hostilities
   ceased in 1950 but both sides are technically still at war.

   Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the
   implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the
   territories still under its control ( Taiwan Province, Taipei,
   Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the ROC
   has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main
   cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual unification with
   China vs. formal independence.

   Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of
   control over many areas of society. However, the Chinese government
   still has absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to
   eradicate threats to the stability of the country. Examples include the
   fight against terrorism, jailing of political opponents and
   journalists, custody regulation of the press, regulation of religions,
   and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the
   student protests at Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by
   the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law.

   In 1997 Hong Kong was returned to the PRC by the United Kingdom and in
   1999 Macao was returned by Portugal.

Present

   Today, the Republic of China continues to exist on Taiwan, while the
   People's Republic of China controls the Chinese mainland. The PRC
   continues to be dominated by the Communist Party, but the ROC has moved
   towards democracy. Both states are still officially claiming to be the
   sole legitimate ruler of all of "China". The ROC had more international
   support immediately after 1949, but most international diplomatic
   recognitions have shifted to the PRC. The ROC representative to the
   United Nations was replaced by the PRC representative in 1971.

   The ROC has not formally renounced its claim to all of China, or
   changed its official maps on which its territories include the
   mainland, and Mongolia, but it has moved away from this identity and
   increasingly identifies itself as "Taiwan". Presently, the ROC does not
   pursue any of its claims on the territories administered by the PRC,
   nor the territories of Mongolia. The PRC claims to have succeeded the
   ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including
   Taiwan. The PRC has used diplomatic and economic pressure to advance
   its One China policy, which attempts to prevent official recognition of
   the ROC by world organizations such as the World Health Organization
   and the International Olympic Committee. Today, there are 24 U.N.
   member states that still maintain official diplomatic relations with
   the ROC.

Territory

Historical political divisions

   Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations
   changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there
   have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies,
   districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level
   cities, county-level cities, towns and townships.

   Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of
   China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also expanded into
   peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and
   Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC
   and the PRC, incorporated these territories into China. China proper is
   generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the
   Tibetan Plateau. Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of
   the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be
   taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast
   Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era
   puppet state of Manchukuo. Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's
   administrative Xinjiang. Historic Tibet occupies all of the Tibetan
   Plateau. China is traditionally divided into Northern China (北方) and
   Southern China (南方), the boundary being the Huai River (淮河) and Qinling
   Mountains (秦岭 or 秦嶺).

Geography and climate

   The precipitation in different regions of China
   Enlarge
   The precipitation in different regions of China

   China is composed of a vast variety of highly different landscapes,
   with mostly plateaus and mountains in the west, and lower lands in the
   east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze
   (central), the Huang He (Yellow river, north-central), and the Amur
   (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River,
   Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into
   the Pacific Ocean.

   In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea
   there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains. On the edges
   of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen.
   Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the
   central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He
   and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Most of China's arable lands lie along
   these rivers; they were the centers of China's major ancient
   civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong,
   Brahmaputra and Amur. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the
   Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand,
   Cambodia, and Vietnam .

   In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a
   vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate
   elevation, and the Himalayas, containing our planet's highest point
   Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid
   desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which
   has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of
   China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which
   separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.

   The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the
   Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary
   deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin.
   Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In
   the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.

   The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing
   Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more 30 degrees and winters
   of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai) has a
   temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters.
   The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate with
   very hot summers and mild winters.

   Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms
   have become usual in the spring in China. Dust has blown to southern
   China and Taiwan, and has even reached the West Coast of the United
   States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important
   issues in China's relations with other countries.

Society

Demographics

   China's overall population exceeds 1.3 billion, about one-fifth of the
   world's population. While over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in
   China, the government of the People's Republic of China officially
   recognizes a total of 56. The largest ethnic group in China by far is
   the Han. This group is diverse and can be divided into smaller ethnic
   groups that share some traits.

   Many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighboring ethnicities
   or disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic
   groups have been Sinicized into the Han, causing its population to
   increase dramatically. At the same time, many within the Han identity
   have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though
   still identifying as Han. Many foreign groups have shaped Han language
   and culture, e.g. the queue was a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced
   by the Manchurians on the Han populace. The term Chinese nation
   (Zhonghua Minzu) is usually used to describe a notion of a Chinese
   nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

Languages

   Bilingual Chinese and Korean street signs in the city of Yanji, Jilin
   province.
   Enlarge
   Bilingual Chinese and Korean street signs in the city of Yanji, Jilin
   province.

   Most languages in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family,
   spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major "dialects"
   within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken dialects are
   Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu (Shanghainese), Yue
   (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken
   widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan,
   Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.

   Putonghua (Standard Mandarin, literally Common Speech) is the official
   language and is based on the Beijing dialect of the Mandarin group of
   dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China. Standard Mandarin
   is the medium of instruction in education and is taught in all schools.
   It is the language used in the media, for formal purposes, and by the
   government. Non-Sinitic languages are co-official in some autonomic
   minority regions. Road signs in major Chinese cities are typically
   bilingual in Chinese and English.

   " Vernacular Chinese" or "baihua" is the written standard based on the
   Mandarin dialect which has been in use since the early 20th century. An
   older written standard, Classical Chinese, was used by literati for
   thousands of years before the 20th century. Classical Chinese is still
   a part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some
   degree to many Chinese. Spoken variants other than Standard Mandarin
   are usually not written, except for Standard Cantonese (see Written
   Cantonese) which is sometimes used in informal contexts.

   Chinese banknotes are multilingual and contain written scripts for
   Standard Mandarin ( Chinese characters and Hanyu Pinyin), Zhuang (
   Roman alphabet), Tibetan ( Tibetan alphabet), Uyghur ( Arabic alphabet)
   and Mongolian ( traditional Mongolian alphabet).

Religion

   Seated Buddha, from the Chinese Tang dynasty, Hebei province, ca. 650
   CE. Mahayana Buddhism remains the largest organized religion in China
   since its introduction in the 1st century CE.
   Enlarge
   Seated Buddha, from the Chinese Tang dynasty, Hebei province, ca. 650
   CE. Mahayana Buddhism remains the largest organized religion in China
   since its introduction in the 1st century CE.

   The People's Republic of China is officially secular and atheist but it
   does allow personal religion or supervised religious organization.
   Buddhism (佛教) and Taoism (道教), along with an underlying Confucian
   morality, have been the dominant religions of Chinese society for
   almost two millennia. Personal religion has been more widely tolerated
   in the PRC today, so there has been a resurrection of interest in
   Buddhism and Taoism in the past decade. The main tradition of Buddhism
   practiced by the Chinese is Mahayana Buddhism (大乘) and its subsets Pure
   Land (淨土宗) and Zen (禪/禅宗) are the most common. Among the younger, urban
   secular population, Taoist spiritual ideas of Feng Shui have become
   popular in recent years, spawning a large home decoration market in
   China. The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA) of the United States
   reports that in addition to unknown numbers of adherents of Taoism and
   Buddhism,
     * 3%-4% Chinese from the PRC are adherents of Christianity and
     * 1%-2% Chinese from the PRC are adherents of Islam.

   In recent years Falun Gong, developed in the 1990s, has attracted great
   controversy after the government labeled it a malicious cult and
   attempted to eradicate it. The Falun Gong itself denies that it is a
   cult or a religion. The Falun Gong claims approximately 70-100 million
   followers, a number which is rejected by foreign independent groups and
   the Chinese government, though exact numbers are unknown.

   Religion and ancient Chinese traditions are widely tolerated in the
   Republic of China, and play a big role in the daily lives of modern
   Taiwanese people. According to the official figures released by the
   CIA:
     * 93% of Taiwanese are adherents of a combination of Buddhism,
       Confucianism, and Taoism.
     * 2.5% of Taiwanese are adherents of other religions, such as Islam,
       Judaism, and others.
     * 4.5% of Taiwanese are adherents of Christianity, this group
       includes a combination of Protestants, Catholics, Mormons, and
       other non-denominational Christian groups.

Culture

   Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou, Jiangsu province, one of the largest
   gardens in China.
   Enlarge
   Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou, Jiangsu province, one of the largest
   gardens in China.

   Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial
   China's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary
   criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. The literary
   emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural
   refinement in China, e.g. the view that calligraphy was a higher art
   form than painting or drama. China's traditional values were derived
   from various versions of Confucianism and conservatism. A number of
   more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such
   as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g.
   the individualistic Song Dynasty neo-Confucians believed Legalism
   departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a
   culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years,
   a number of New Confucians have advocated that democratic ideals and
   human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian
   values".

   With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the
   mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political
   organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be
   reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought
   to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence,
   the history of 20th century China is one of experimentation with new
   systems of social, political, and economic organization that would
   allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic
   collapse.

   The first leaders of the PRC were born in the old society but were
   influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought
   to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural
   land tenure, sexism, and Confucian education, while preserving others,
   such as the family structure and obedience to the state. Many observers
   believe that the period following 1949 is a continuation of traditional
   Chinese dynastic history. Others say that the CPC's rule and the
   Cultural Revolution have damaged the foundations of Chinese culture,
   asserting that many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and
   culture, such as Confucianism, Chinese art, literature, and performing
   arts like Beijing opera were altered to conform to government policies
   and communist propaganda. The institution of the Simplified Chinese
   orthography reform is controversial as well.

   Today, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese
   culture as an integral part of Chinese society, calling it an important
   achievement of the Chinese civilization and vital to the formation of a
   Chinese national identity.

   Chinese films have enjoyed box office success abroad, introducing both
   exotic and mundane elements of Chinese culture across the world. In the
   last two decades, China has become a hotbed of filmmaking with such
   films as Farewell My Concubine, In the Mood for Love, 2046, Crouching
   Tiger Hidden Dragon (Taiwan), Yi Yi (Taiwan), Hero, Infernal Affairs,
   Suzhou River, The Road Home and House of Flying Daggers being
   critically acclaimed around the world.

Arts, scholarship, and literature

   Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 CE
   Enlarge
   Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 CE

   Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese
   history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still
   extant, from Oracle bones to Qing edicts. Calligraphy is a major art
   form in China, more highly regarded than painting and music.
   Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian,
   Taoist, and Buddhist) were handwritten by ink brush. Calligraphy later
   became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized
   possessions.

   Printmaking was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of
   scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics
   in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated
   in these discussions.

   For centuries, economic and social advancement in China could be
   provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to
   a meritocracy, although it was available only to males who could afford
   test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write
   essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who
   passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials
   known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.

   Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets were highly respected, and
   played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire.
   Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring
   depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure
   of authorities.
   A Chinese stringed instrument qin, a 7-string bridgeless zither
   Enlarge
   A Chinese stringed instrument qin, a 7-string bridgeless zither

   The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng
   (箏, zither with movable bridges), qin (琴, bridgeless zither), sheng (笙,
   free reed), xiao (箫 or 簫, end blown flute) and adopted and developed
   others such the erhu (二胡, bowed lute) and pipa (plucked lute), many of
   which have later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia,
   particularly to Japan, Korea and Vietnam.

Sports and recreation

   Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.
   Enlarge
   Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.

   There is evidence that a form of football (i.e. soccer) was first
   played in China around 1000 CE, leading many historians to believe that
   it originated there.. Besides football, the most popular sports are
   martial arts, table tennis, badminton and more recently, golf.
   Basketball is especially popular with the young, in urban centers where
   space is limited.

   There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing
   occurs during the Duan Wu festival. In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style
   wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and
   equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.

   China has become a sports power in the Asian region and around the
   world. China finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games
   since 1982, and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer
   Olympic Games since 1992. The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as
   the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing, China.

   Physical fitness is highly regarded. Morning exercises are a common
   activity and the elderly are often seen practicing qigong in parks.

   Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi
   (Chinese chess) are also common and have organised formal competitions.

Science and technology

   Yanghui Triangle, known as Pascal's Triangle in West, was first drawn
   by the Chinese
   Enlarge
   Yanghui Triangle, known as Pascal's Triangle in West, was first drawn
   by the Chinese

   Scientific achievements:
     * Mathematics, applied to architecture and geography. Pi (π) was
       calculated by 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi to the seventh
       digit. The decimal system was used in China as early as the 14th
       Century BCE. Pascal's Triangle, known as Yanghui Triangle in China,
       was discovered by mathematicians Chia Hsien, Yang Hui, Zhu Shijie
       and Liu Ju-Hsieh, about 500 years before Blaise Pascal was born.
     * Biology, such as pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants.
     * Traditional medicine and surgery have achieved recognition over the
       last few decades in the West as alternative and complementary
       therapies.

   Technical inventions attributed to China (some of them only allegedly):
   Military
     * gunpowder
     * gunpowder incendiaries
     * grenade
     * early bronze cannon
     * fire lance, rockets

     * trebuchet
     * crossbow
     * repeating crossbow
     * grid sight
     * manned kite

     * poison gas (smoke from burning dried mustard)
     * tear gas made from powdered lime
     * relief maps for battle planning

   Naval
     * Dry dock
     * Propeller

     * Rudder

     * Fishing pole (hook)

   Flying
     * Fireworks
     * solid-fuel rocket

     * Glider
     * Kite

     * Hot air balloon
     * Parachute

   Paper
     * Paper
     * Toilet Paper

     * Wallpaper

     * Paper money and necessary monetary institutions
     * Block Printmaking / Printing Technology

   Measurement and Navigation
     * Abacus
     * Calipers

     * Clock
     * Compass

     * Raised-relief map
     * Seismograph

   Metalurgy
     * Bronze

     * Blast furnace (steel)

   Vary
     * Fan
     * Lacquer
     * Matches
     * Piston pump
     * Porcelain (China)

     * Seed drill
     * Silk
     * Stirrup
     * Toothbrush
     * Umbrella

     * Wheelbarrow
     * Suspension bridge
     * Petroleum well
     * Whiskey (medicinal/surgical use)

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
