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British monarchy

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Politics and government

          The British Monarchy is a shared monarchy. This article
          describes the Monarchy from the perspective of the United
          Kingdom. In the other Commonwealth Realms, the constitutional
          role of the Monarchy is similar, but the historical and cultural
          significance may differ. For information on the Monarchy in the
          other Realms, see Other Realms below.

   The British monarch or Sovereign is the head of state of the United
   Kingdom and in the British overseas territories. The current British
   monarchy can trace its line back to the Anglo-Saxon period, but derives
   its most ancient pedigree by tracing its line through the Kings of
   Scots. During the ninth century, Wessex came to dominate other kingdoms
   in England, especially as a result of the extinction of rival lines in
   England during the First Viking Age, and during the tenth century
   England was consolidated into a single realm. The English and Scots
   crowns were united in the person of a single monarch in 1603 when James
   VI of Scots acceded to the throne of England. The kingdoms themselves
   were joined in the Acts of Union 1707, to form Great Britain.

   The powers of the monarchy, known as the Royal Prerogative, are still
   very extensive. Most prerogative powers are exercised not by the
   monarch personally, but by ministers acting on his or her behalf;
   examples such as the power to regulate the civil service and the power
   to issue passports. Some major powers are exercised nominally by the
   monarch herself, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister and
   Cabinet, and according to constitutional convention. An example is the
   power to dissolve Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The
   Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers".

   It has long been established in the uncodified Constitution of the
   United Kingdom that political power is ultimately exercised by the
   Parliament of the United Kingdom, of which the Sovereign is a
   non-partisan component, along with the House of Lords and the House of
   Commons, and by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Thus, as the modern
   British monarchy is a constitutional one, the Sovereign's role is in
   practice limited to non-partisan functions (such as being the fount of
   honour). This role has been recognised since the 19th century; Walter
   Bagehot identified the monarchy as the "dignified part" rather than the
   "efficient part" of government in The English Constitution (1867). In
   practice, political power is exercised today through Parliament and by
   the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The sovereign also holds the title of
   Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, although in
   practice the spiritual leadership of the Church is the responsibility
   of the Archbishop of Canterbury.

   The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since
   February 6, 1952. The heir apparent is her eldest son, Prince Charles,
   Prince of Wales and Duke of Rothesay. The Prince of Wales undertakes
   various public ceremonial functions, as does the queen's husband,
   Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. There are several other members of
   Royal Family besides those aforementioned, including the Queen's other
   children, grandchildren and cousins.

   The British monarch is also Head of the Commonwealth, and the same
   person is also separately monarch of 15 other Commonwealth Realms; each
   nation–including the UK–being sovereign and independent of the others.

History

English monarchy

   Monarchs had existed in the island of Britain since before Roman times;
   many of these "Celtic" rulers were to ally with or fall to the Romans
   who made the province of Britannia (roughly modern England and Wales)
   part of their empire. Rome withdrew from Britannia in the early fifth
   century, and a period of history followed that has been referred to as
   the Dark Ages. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain, and formed
   many kingdoms, the seven most powerful of which have been referred to
   as the Heptarchy. This term, however, is somewhat misleading, as it
   does not truly convey the complicated political make-up of Britain at
   the time. Each kingdom had its own "monarch," and at times one powerful
   king would have dominance over several others: there was no "British
   monarchy", however, and the idea that the so-called Bretwalda was some
   official royal title is rather fanciful. This was a ceremonial figure
   as opposed to a supreme ruler.

   Following the Viking raids and settlement of the ninth century, the
   kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the
   Great secured Wessex and achieved dominance over western Mercia, but he
   did not become King of England; the nearest title he assumed was "King
   of the Anglo-Saxons". It was Alfred's successors of the tenth century
   who built the kingdom now recognised as England, though even by the
   reign of Edgar the Peaceful England was not beyond fracturing into its
   constituent parts. The eleventh century saw England become more stable,
   despite a number of wars with the Danes which resulted in a Danish
   monarchy for some years. When William, Duke of Normandy conquered
   England in 1066 he became monarch of a kingdom with probably the
   strongest royal authority in Europe. The Norman Conquest was crucial in
   British history, in terms of both political and social change. The new
   monarch continued the centralization of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon
   period, while the Feudal System also continued to develop.
   The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest.
   Enlarge
   The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest.

   William I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, and then Henry
   I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda
   (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in
   1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the Throne,
   and took power with the support of most of the barons. Stephen's weak
   rule, however, allowed Matilda to challenge his reign; as a result,
   England soon descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy.
   Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power for the rest of his life;
   however, he agreed to a compromise under which he would be succeeded by
   Matilda's son Henry, who accordingly became the first monarch of the
   Angevin or Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.

   The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife
   and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced
   rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John.
   Nevertheless, Henry did manage to achieve an expansion of his empire;
   most notable was the conquest of Ireland, which had previously
   consisted of a multitude of rival kingdoms. Henry granted Ireland to
   his younger son John who ruled as "Lord of Ireland".

   Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne;
   Richard, however, was absent from England for most of his reign, as he
   was fighting the Crusades in the Near East. When Richard died, John
   succeeded him, thereby uniting England and Ireland under a single
   monarch. John's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, who in
   1215 coerced him into issuing the Magna Carta (Latin for "Great
   Charter") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon
   afterwards, John repealed the charter, plunging England into a civil
   war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after
   John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry
   III. The barons, led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, again
   rebelled later in Henry's reign, beginning the Second Barons' War. The
   war, however, ended in a clear royalist victory, and in the execution
   of many rebels.

   The next monarch, Edward I, was far more successful in maintaining
   royal power, and was responsible for the conquest of Wales and the
   attempt to establish English domination in Scotland. However, gains in
   Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II,
   who was also occupied with a disastrous conflict with the nobility.
   Edward II was, in 1311, forced to relinquish many of his powers to a
   committee of baronial "ordainers"; however, military victories helped
   him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed
   and executed by his wife Isabella and by his son, who became Edward
   III. The new monarch soon also claimed the French Crown, setting off
   the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Edward III's
   campaigns were largely successful, and culminated in the conquest of
   much French territory. Edward's reign was also marked by the further
   development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses for
   the first time. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his ten
   year-old grandson Richard II. The new monarch, like many of his
   predecessors, conflicted with the nobles, especially by attempting to
   concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, whilst he was away in
   Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power; Richard was then
   forced to abdicate and was murdered.

   Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt,
   Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of
   Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off
   plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill
   of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in
   1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to
   pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Henry V was victorious in his
   conquest; however, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry
   VI on the Throne, and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow
   English rule. The unpopularity of Henry's regents, and afterwards,
   Henry's own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House
   of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of
   York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was
   Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in
   1460, his eldest son Edward led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The
   Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during the
   reigns of the Yorkists Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III.
   Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian
   branch, led by Henry Tudor (Henry VII), in 1485, when Richard III was
   killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.
   The above portrait of Elizabeth I was made in approximately 1588 to
   commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the
   background).
   Enlarge
   The above portrait of Elizabeth I was made in approximately 1588 to
   commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the
   background).

   The end of the Wars of the Roses formed a major turning point in the
   history of the monarchy. Much of the nobility was either decimated on
   the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many
   aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was
   dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete.
   Hence, the Tudor monarchs easily re-established absolute supremacy in
   the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued
   previous monarchs came to an end. The power of the Crown reached its
   zenith during the reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII. Henry
   VIII's reign was one of great political change; England was transformed
   from a weak kingdom into one of the powers of Europe. Religious
   upheaval also occurred, as disputes with the Pope led the monarch to
   break away from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church
   of England (the Anglican Church). Another important result of Henry
   VIII's reign was the annexation of Wales (which had been conquered
   centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion) to England
   under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542.

   Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with
   further religious reforms. Edward VI died in 1553, precipitating a
   succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder
   half-sister Mary to succeed to the Throne, and therefore drew up a will
   designating the Lady Jane Grey as his heiress, even though no woman had
   ever reigned over England. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine
   days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her, revoked her
   proclamation as Queen, and declared herself the lawful Sovereign. Mary
   I attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, in the process
   burning numerous Protestants at the stake as heretics. Mary I died in
   1558, to be succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth I, who once again
   returned England to Protestantism. The Elizabethan era involved the
   growth of England as a world power, as evidenced by England's success
   in the Anglo-Spanish War (especially the celebrated defeat of the
   Spanish Armada in 1588) and by English colonies in North America. The
   era is often referred to as a " golden age" for England, especially due
   to the cultural achievements of William Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, and
   others.

Scottish monarchy

   In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of
   Rome in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in
   Scotland at this time were the Picts (who inhabited the kingdom of
   Pictavia), the Britons (who lived in several kingdoms in southern
   Scotland, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde), and the Scotti (who
   would later give their name to Scotland) of Dál Riata. Cináed I is
   traditionally viewed as the founder of united Scotland (or kingdom of
   Alba). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two
   centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were subjugated or
   obtained through dynastic marriage.

   Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the
   custom of alternating segments was followed, as in Ireland and
   previously among the Picts. The monarchy alternated between two,
   sometimes three, branches of the House of Alpín. As a result, however,
   the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. The problems
   relating to succession were especially illustrated by the period from
   942 to 1005, during which seven consecutive monarchs were either
   murdered or killed in battle. The rotation of the monarchy between
   different lines were abandoned after Máel Coluim II ascended the throne
   in 1005 having killed many rivals. Thus, when Donnchad I succeeded Máel
   Coluim II in 1034, he did so as tanist, with no opposition.

   In 1040, Donnchad suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth,
   the subject of William Shakespeare's famous play (The Tragedy of
   Macbeth). Later, in 1057, Donnchad's son Máel Coluim avenged his
   father's death by defeating and killing Macbeth. A few months later,
   after the murder of Macbeth's son Lulach, Máel Coluim ascended the
   throne as Máel Coluim III, becoming the first monarch of the House of
   Dunkeld.

   From 1107, Scotland was briefly partitioned under the will of Edgar,
   who divided his dominions between his eldest surviving brother
   Alexander I (who ruled northern Scotland as a king) and his younger
   brother David (who ruled southern Scotland as an earl). After
   Alexander's death in 1124, David inherited his dominions, and Scotland
   became unified once more. David was succeeded by the ineffective
   Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of
   Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a
   rebellion against King Henry II of England; however, the rebellion
   failed, and William was captured by the English. In exchange for his
   release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal
   overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the
   arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the
   Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander
   II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to
   take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of
   Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an
   unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth
   recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed
   areas.

   Alexander III's death in 1286 brought his three year-old Norwegian
   granddaughter Margaret to the throne. On her way to Scotland in 1290,
   however, Margaret died at sea, precipitating a major succession crisis,
   during which there were thirteen rival claimants. Several Scottish
   leaders appealed to King Edward I of England to settle the dispute. A
   court was set up with the Balliol and Bruce "factions" each nominating
   "assessors". Contrary to popular opinion, Edward did not choose John
   Balliol to be king. Balliol won the overwhelming support of the
   majority of assessors. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a
   vassal, and tried to exert considerable influence over Scottish
   affairs. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England,
   Edward I invaded and conquered Scotland. During the first ten years of
   the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch
   present; however, it was informally led by William Wallace. After
   Wallace's execution in 1305, Robert the Bruce took over and declared
   himself king. Robert's efforts culminated in success, and Scottish
   independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later,
   Robert died, and the English again invaded under the pretext of
   restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, to the throne.
   Nonetheless, during further military campaigns, Scotland once again won
   its independence under Robert the Bruce's son David II.
   James IV attempted to invade England in 1513, but was killed in the
   process.
   Enlarge
   James IV attempted to invade England in 1513, but was killed in the
   process.

   In 1371, David II was succeeded by Robert II, the first Scottish
   monarch from the House of Stewart (later Stuart). The reigns of both
   Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general
   decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to
   rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken
   captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to
   Scotland in 1424; in order to restore his authority, he used ruthless
   measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. James II
   continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen. At
   the same time, however, the Estates of Scotland (the Scottish
   Parliament) became increasingly powerful, often openly defying the
   King. Parliamentary power reached its zenith during the reign of the
   ineffective King James III. As a result, James IV and his successors
   tended to avoid calling parliamentary sessions, thereby checking the
   power of the Estates.

   In 1513, James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take
   advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met
   with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and
   over ten thousand soldiers were killed. As James IV's son and
   successor, James V, was an infant, the government was taken over by
   regents. After he reached adulthood, James ruled successfully until
   another disastrous war with the English in 1542. James's death in the
   same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter,
   Mary; once again, a regency was established. Mary, a Roman Catholic,
   reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. Due to
   the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was
   established. Mary caused considerable alarm by marrying a fellow
   Catholic, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in
   1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of
   Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility
   rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate and to flee to
   England (where she was imprisoned and later executed by Elizabeth I).
   The Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a
   Protestant. James VI would later become King of England upon the death
   of Queen Elizabeth I.

Personal Union and republican phase

   James VI and I was the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland,
   and Ireland together.
   Enlarge
   James VI and I was the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland,
   and Ireland together.

   Elizabeth's death in 1603 brought about the end of the rule of the
   House of Tudor; she had no children, so was succeeded by the Scottish
   monarch James VI whose maternal great-grandmother was Henry VIII's
   older sister. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known
   as the " Union of the Crowns". Although England and Scotland were in
   personal union under one monarch - James I became the first monarch to
   style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604 - they remained separate
   kingdoms. James belonged to the House of Stuart, a royal house whose
   monarchs experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament.
   The disputes frequently related to the issue of royal and parliamentary
   powers, especially the power to impose taxes. The conflict was
   especially pronounced during the reign of James I's successor Charles
   I, who provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to
   1640 (the " Eleven Years Tyranny"), unilaterally levying taxes, and
   adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive
   to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). In about 1642,
   the conflict between King and Parliament reached its climax as the
   English Civil War began. The war culminated in the execution of the
   king, the overthrow of the monarchy, and the establishment of a
   republic known as the Commonwealth of England. In 1653, however, Oliver
   Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the
   nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively
   becoming a military dictator). Oliver Cromwell continued to rule until
   his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell.
   The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon
   abdicated, allowing the brief re-establishment of the Commonwealth. The
   lack of clear leadership, however, led to civil and military unrest,
   and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. The Restoration came
   about in 1660, when Charles I's son Charles II was declared king. The
   establishment of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was deemed illegal;
   Charles II was declared to have been the de jure king since his
   father's death in 1649.

   Charles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern
   political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and
   was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of
   York. There arose a parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line
   of succession; the "Abhorrers," who opposed it, became the Tory Party,
   whereas the "Petitioners," who supported it, became the Whig Party. The
   Exclusion Bill, however, failed; on several occasions, Charles II
   dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After
   the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled as an absolute
   monarch until his death in 1685. The Catholic James II accordingly
   succeeded Charles (who himself converted to Catholicism on his
   deathbed). James pursued policy of offering religious tolerance to
   Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant
   subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing
   army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military
   offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his
   policies (see Seven Bishops). As a result, a group of Protestant nobles
   and other notable citizens known as the Immortal Seven invited James
   II's daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange to depose the
   king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great
   public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant
   officials, James fled the realm on 23 December of the same year. On 12
   February 1689, the Convention Parliament declared that James's flight
   constituted an abdication, and that William III and Mary II (not James
   II's Catholic son James Francis Edward Stuart) were joint Sovereigns of
   England and Ireland. The Scottish Estates soon followed suit.

   James's overthrow is normally known as the Glorious Revolution, and was
   one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary
   power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and
   declared that the English people held certain rights, including the
   freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of
   Rights also required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided
   that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would
   inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the
   sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of the Princess
   Anne's children had died, leaving Anne as the only individual left in
   the line of succession. Parliament, afraid that the former James II or
   his Roman Catholic relatives might attempt to reclaim the Throne,
   passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which placed William's distant
   Protestant cousin Sophia, Electress of Hanover, in the line of
   succession. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died,
   leaving the Crown to his sister-in-law Anne.

After the Union of the Crowns

   England and Scotland were united as Great Britain under Queen Anne.
   Enlarge
   England and Scotland were united as Great Britain under Queen Anne.

   After Anne's accession, the succession issue quickly re-emerged; the
   Scottish Estates, infuriated that the English Parliament did not
   consult them on the choice of Sophia of Hanover, passed the Act of
   Security, threatening to end the personal union between England and
   Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705,
   threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by cutting free trade. As
   a result, the Scottish Estates acquiesced to the Act of Union 1707,
   under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of
   Great Britain, with succession to be determined under the rules
   prescribed by the Act of Settlement.

   Accordingly, in 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by the son of the
   deceased Sophia of Hanover, George I, who consolidated his position by
   defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was
   much less active in government than many of his predecessors,
   preferring to devote much of his time to the affairs of his German
   kingdoms. Instead, George left much of his power to his ministers,
   especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first
   (unofficial) Prime Minister of Great Britain. The decline of the
   influence of the monarch and the rise of the power of the Prime
   Minister and Cabinet continued during the reign of the next monarch,
   George II, but was halted during that of George III. George III
   attempted to recover much of the power given up by his Hanoverian
   predecessors; he also acted to keep the Tories (who favoured royal
   control in government more than the Whigs) in power whenever possible.
   George III's reign was also important because of the union of Great
   Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom under the Act of Union
   1800. At the same time, George III also dropped the claim to the French
   Throne, which had been nominally made by all English monarchs since
   Edward III.
   King George III asserted his political authority on several occasions,
   in contrast with his two Hanoverian predecessors.
   Enlarge
   King George III asserted his political authority on several occasions,
   in contrast with his two Hanoverian predecessors.

   From 1811 to 1820, George III was insane, forcing his son, the future
   George IV, to rule as Prince Regent. During the Regency, and later
   during his own reign, George IV continued to maintain what remained of
   royal authority, instead of ceding it to Parliament and the Cabinet.
   His successor, William IV, attempted to do the same, but met with much
   less success. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister,
   William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, over policy differences, and
   instead appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections,
   however, the Whigs maintained a large majority in the House of Commons;
   they forced Peel to resign by blocking most of his legislation, thus
   leaving the King with no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. Since
   1834, no monarch has appointed or dismissed a Prime Minister contrary
   to the will of the democratically chosen House of Commons. William IV's
   reign was also marked by the passage of the Great Reform Act, which
   reformed parliamentary representation and abolished many rotten
   boroughs. The act, together with others passed later in the century,
   led to an expansion of the electoral franchise, and the rise of the
   increasingly legitimate House of Commons as the most important branch
   of Parliament.

   The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the
   long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria
   could not rule Hanover; thus, the personal union of the United Kingdom
   and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian Era was an historic one for
   the United Kingdom, and was marked by great cultural change,
   technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as
   one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over
   India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, the
   reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement,
   due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of
   seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.

   Victoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of
   Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1901. However, in 1917, the next monarch, George
   V, replaced "Saxe-Coburg-Gotha" with "Windsor" due to the anti-German
   sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was also
   marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland (which
   remained a part of the United Kingdom) and the Irish Free State (an
   independent nation) in 1922.

Monarchy in Ireland

   In the twelfth century Pope Adrian IV gave a papal bull authorizing
   King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland. This was
   because the Irish Christian church at the time was not following the
   Roman Catholic Church and had various heretical beliefs. So the pope
   wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church
   into the Catholic Church. The pope granted Ireland to the king of
   England as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship.

   Around 1170 King Dermot MacMurrough of Leinster was deposed and his
   country taken by his archenemy King Rory O'Connor of Connaught. Dermot
   escaped to England and asked Henry for help. Henry refused but agreed
   to allow him to use a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and
   adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, the earl of Pembroke, to help him
   regain his throne. Dermot and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he
   became King of Leinster again. As a reward Dermot let de Clare marry
   his daughter. Because of this when Dermot died in 1171 de Clare
   inherited his throne and became King of Leinster. This made Henry
   afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman state or a place
   of refuge for Anglo-Saxons, so he took advantage of the papal bull
   giving him possession of Ireland and went to the island with his
   English armies and forced de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman
   aristocrats in Ireland and some of the Gaelic Irish chieftains to
   recognize him as their overlord. Henry was thus Lord of Ireland under
   nominal papal overlordship after this.

   This remained the status of Ireland until 1541. By then King Henry VIII
   of England had broken with the Catholic Church and made England
   Protestant. This made the pope's granting of Ireland to the English
   monarch invalid. So he summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament that
   year to change his title of sovereignty over the island. There his
   title was changed from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland, thus making
   the island a kingdom in personal union with the kingdom of England.

   Ireland continued to have this status until 1800, when the Act of Union
   merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into one
   kingdom called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland
   continued to be an integral part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when
   much of it was granted independence as the Irish Free State. Ireland
   was a separate kingdom with the same monarch as Great Britain in a
   personal union from its independence in 1922 until 1949, when what had
   become Southern Ireland became a republic and severed all ties with the
   monarchy, while Northern Ireland remained loyal to the Union and the
   Crown, thus creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
   Ireland.

Empire to Commonwealth

   Map of the Commonwealth Realms where once the British Monarch reigned
   over all but now the Crown is 'divided' so that one shared Sovereign
   reigns as Monarch of each nation separately.
   Enlarge
   Map of the Commonwealth Realms where once the British Monarch reigned
   over all but now the Crown is 'divided' so that one shared Sovereign
   reigns as Monarch of each nation separately.

   Formerly, the Crown operated over the entire British Empire as a single
   entity. The British Crown was seen as a unitary one, to which all
   Dominions and colonies were subordinate. However, the Balfour
   Declaration of 1926 stated that the Dominions were "autonomous
   Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way
   subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external
   affairs." In 1931, the Statute of Westminster was passed, ending the
   right of the government in London to advise the King on actions to take
   regarding the individual Dominions. As a result, the unitary British
   Crown that operated over the entire empire was replaced by separate
   Crowns for each Dominion. Thus, the institution of the Monarchy ceased
   to be exclusively British, the particular British Monarchy only
   existing within the Crown's British jurisdiction - the UK. Reflecting
   this, while the George VI was one person, he was separately King of the
   United Kingdom, King of Australia, King of Canada, and so forth. This
   "division" was further enhanced with the subsequent patriation of each
   Realm's constitution from the UK over the ensuing decades.

   One Canadian constitutional scholar, Dr. Richard Toporoski, stated on
   this: "I am perfectly prepared to concede, even happily affirm, that
   the British Crown no longer exists in Canada, but that is because legal
   reality indicates to me that in one sense, the British Crown no longer
   exists in Britain: the Crown transcends Britain just as much as it does
   Canada. One can therefore speak of "the British Crown" or "the Canadian
   Crown" or indeed the "Barbadian" or "Tuvaluan" Crown, but what one will
   mean by the term is the Crown acting or expressing itself within the
   context of that particular jurisdiction."

   Formerly every member of the British Commonwealth was a Commonwealth
   Realm. However, when India became a republic in 1950, it was decided
   that it should be permitted to remain in the Commonwealth, even though
   they would no longer share a common monarch with the other Commonwealth
   Realms. It was nevertheless decided that the British monarch would be
   acknowledged as " Head of the Commonwealth" in all Commonwealth member
   states, whether realms or not. The position is purely ceremonial, and
   is not accompanied by political power.

After the Empire

   The reign of Queen Victoria was the longest in the history of the
   United Kingdom.
   Enlarge
   The reign of Queen Victoria was the longest in the history of the
   United Kingdom.

   George V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of the
   celebrated King Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing
   his desire to marry a divorced American woman, Wallis Simpson, even
   though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcés.
   Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the
   Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth realms
   granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were
   to be excluded from the line of succession; instead, the Crown went to
   his brother, George VI. The new monarch served as a rallying figure for
   the British people during the Second World War, making morale-boosting
   visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas
   bombed by Nazi Germany. George VI was also the last British monarch to
   hold the title "Emperor of India," a title relinquished when India was
   granted independence in 1947.

   George VI's death in 1952 was followed by the accession of the present
   monarch, Elizabeth II. Like her recent predecessors, Elizabeth II
   continues to function as a constitutional monarch. During her reign,
   there has been some support for the republican movement, especially due
   to negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance,
   the divorce of Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales).
   Nevertheless, a large majority of the British public supports the
   continuation of the monarchy.

Succession

   Succession is governed by several enactments, the most important of
   which are the Bill of Rights 1689 and Act of Settlement 1701. The rules
   for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by an Act of
   Parliament. However, the United Kingdom is in personal union with other
   Commonwealth Realms; if the UK changes the rules of succession without
   the consent of the other Realms, the shared monarchy may come to an
   end.

   Succession is according to the rules of male-preference cognatic
   primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and under
   which elder children inherit before younger ones of the same sex. The
   Act of Settlement, however, restricts the succession to the natural (ie
   non- adopted) legitimate descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover
   (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I.
   The Sovereign is crowned at Westminster Abbey, as depicted in the above
   portrait of King Charles II.
   Enlarge
   The Sovereign is crowned at Westminster Abbey, as depicted in the above
   portrait of King Charles II.

   The Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement also include certain religious
   restrictions, which were imposed because of the English people's
   mistrust of Roman Catholicism during the late seventeenth century. Most
   importantly, only individuals who are Protestants at the time of the
   succession may inherit the Crown. Moreover, a person who has at any
   time professed Roman Catholicism, or has ever married a Roman Catholic,
   is also prohibited from succeeding. One who is thus disabled from
   inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead" for succession
   purposes; the disqualifications do not extend to the individual's
   descendants. In recent years, there have been some efforts to remove
   the religious restrictions (especially the specific rules relating to
   Roman Catholicism), but the provisions remain in effect.

   Upon a "demise in the Crown" (the death of a Sovereign) his or her heir
   immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for
   confirmation or further ceremony. (Hence arises the phrase " The King
   is dead. Long live the King!") Nevertheless, it is customary for the
   accession of the Sovereign to be publicly proclaimed by an Accession
   Council that meets at St. James's Palace. After an appropriate period
   of mourning has passed, the Sovereign is also crowned in Westminster
   Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not
   necessary for a Sovereign to rule; for example, Edward VIII was never
   crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short reign.

   After an individual ascends the Throne, he or she continues to reign
   until death. Monarchs are not allowed to unilaterally abdicate; the
   only monarch to voluntarily abdicate, Edward VIII (1936), did so with
   the authorisation of a special Act of Parliament ( His Majesty's
   Declaration of Abdication Act 1936). Historically, however, numerous
   reigns ended due to irregular or extralegal procedures; several
   monarchs have been killed, deposed, or forced to abdicate, chiefly
   during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The last monarch
   involuntarily removed from power was James II, who fled the realm in
   1688 during the Glorious Revolution; Parliament interpreted his flight
   as an abdication.

Regency

   Under the Regency Act 1937 and Regency Act 1953, the powers of a
   monarch who has not reached the age of eighteen, or of a monarch who is
   physically or mentally incapacitated, must be exercised by a regent. A
   physical or mental incapacity must be certified by at least three of
   the following people: the Sovereign's spouse, the Lord Speaker, the
   Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chief Justice of England and
   Wales, and the Master of the Rolls. The declaration of three or more of
   the same persons is also necessary to terminate the regency and to
   allow the monarch to resume power.

   When a Regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line
   of succession becomes Regent; no special parliamentary vote or other
   confirmation procedure is necessary. The Regent must be aged at least
   twenty-one years (eighteen years in the case of the heir apparent or
   heir presumptive), be a British citizen, and be domiciled in the United
   Kingdom. However, special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II
   by the Regency Act 1953, which states that The Duke of Edinburgh (the
   Queen's husband) may act as Regent in certain circumstances. The only
   individual to have acted as Regent was the future George IV, who took
   over the government of the realm whilst his father, George III, was
   insane (1811–1820).

   During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom,
   the Sovereign may temporarily delegate his or her functions to
   Counsellors of State, the Sovereign's spouse and the first four
   qualified people in the line of succession. The qualifications for
   Counsellors of State are the same as those for Regents. The present
   Counsellors of State are: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wales,
   Prince William of Wales, Prince Harry of Wales and The Duke of York.

Political role

   Although the monarch's powers are vast in theory, they are limited in
   practice. As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign acts within the
   constraints of convention and precedent, almost always exercising the
   Royal Prerogative on the advice of the Prime Minister and other
   ministers. The Prime Minister and ministers are, in turn, accountable
   to the democratically elected House of Commons, and through it, to the
   people.

   Whenever necessary, the Sovereign is responsible for appointing a new
   Prime Minister; the appointment is formalised at a ceremony known as
   Kissing Hands. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions,
   the Sovereign must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the
   support of the House of Commons: usually, the leader of the party which
   has a majority in that House. If no party has a majority (an unlikely
   occurrence given the United Kingdom's First Past the Post electoral
   system), two or more groups may form a coalition, whose agreed leader
   is then appointed Prime Minister. In a " hung parliament," in which no
   party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch obtains an increased
   degree of latitude in his or her choice of Prime Minister. Still,
   however, the individual most likely to command the support of the
   Commons, usually the leader of the largest party, must be appointed.
   Thus, for example, Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister soon
   after the February 1974 general election, even though his Labour Party
   did not have a majority. It has also been suggested that in the same
   situation, if a minority government tried to dissolve Parliament to
   call an election early to strengthen its position, the monarch could
   refuse, and instead allow opposition parties to form a coalition
   government. However, Harold Wilson's minority government elected in
   February 1974 successfully called an early election in October 1974
   which gave it a majority.

   The Sovereign appoints and dismisses Cabinet and other ministers on the
   Prime Minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the Prime Minister, and not
   the Sovereign, exercises control over the composition of the Cabinet.
   The monarch may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but
   convention and precedent bar such an action. The last monarch to
   unilaterally remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord
   Melbourne in 1834. In practice, a Prime Minister's term comes to an end
   only with death or resignation. (In some circumstances, the Prime
   Minister is required to resign; see Prime Minister of the United
   Kingdom.)

   The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister, as well as
   regular audiences with other members of the Cabinet. The monarch may
   express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must
   ultimately accept the Prime Minister's and Cabinet's decisions. Walter
   Bagehot, the nineteenth century constitutional writer, summarises this
   concept, "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three
   rights—the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to
   warn."

   The monarch has a similar relationship with devolved governments of
   Scotland and Wales. (Northern Ireland presently has no devolved
   government; its Assembly and executive have been suspended.) The
   Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland, but on the
   nomination of the Scottish Parliament. The First Minister of Wales, on
   the other hand, is directly elected by the National Assembly for Wales.
   In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish
   Executive. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, the
   Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the
   United Kingdom in Welsh matters.

   The Sovereign also plays the role of Head of State in the United
   Kingdom. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, not to Parliament
   or to the nation. Moreover, God Save the Queen (or, if the Sovereign is
   male, God Save the King) is used as the British national anthem. The
   monarch's visage appears on postage stamps, on coins, and on banknotes
   issued by the Bank of England. Banknotes issued by other British banks,
   such as the Bank of Scotland and the Ulster Bank, do not depict the
   Sovereign.

Royal Prerogative

   The powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the Royal
   Prerogative. The Royal Prerogative includes many powers (such as the
   powers to make treaties or send ambassadors) as well as certain duties
   (such as the duties to defend the realm and to maintain the Queen's
   peace). As the British monarchy is a constitutional one, however, the
   monarch exercises the Royal Prerogative on the advice of ministers.
   Parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the Royal
   Prerogative; moreover, the Consent of the Crown must be obtained before
   either House may even debate a bill affecting the Sovereign's
   prerogatives or interests. Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive,
   it is not unlimited. For example, the monarch does not have the
   prerogative to impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires
   the authorisation of an Act of Parliament.

   The Sovereign is one of the three components of Parliament; the others
   are the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is the prerogative
   of the monarch to summon, prorogue, and dissolve Parliament. Each
   parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new
   parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament,
   during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the Throne in the
   Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative
   agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session
   begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a
   parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of five years), and is
   followed by general elections for all seats in the House of Commons.
   These powers, however, are always exercised on the Prime Minister's
   advice. The timing of a dissolution is affected by a variety of
   factors; the Prime Minister normally chooses the most politically
   opportune moment for his or her party. The Sovereign may theoretically
   refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action
   would be warranted are unclear. (See Lascelles Principles.) No
   parliamentary term may last more than five years; at the end of this
   period, a dissolution is automatic under the Parliament Act 1911.

   All laws are enacted in the monarch's name. The words "BE IT ENACTED by
   the Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and
   consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this
   present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as
   follows," known as the enacting formula, form a part of each Act of
   Parliament. Before a bill can become law, the Royal Assent (the
   monarch's approval) is required. The Sovereign may, in theory, either
   grant the Royal Assent (make the bill law) or withhold the Royal Assent
   (veto the bill). In practice, however, the Royal Assent is always
   granted; the last monarch to withhold Assent was Anne, who rejected a
   Scots militia bill in 1708.

   The Royal Prerogative with respect to domestic affairs is extensive.
   The Crown is responsible for the appointment and dismissal of
   ministers, Privy Counsellors, members of various executive agencies,
   and other officials. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by
   the Prime Minister, or, for less important offices, by other ministers.
   In addition, the monarch is the head or commander in chief of the Armed
   Forces (the British Army, the Royal Navy, and the Royal Air Force). It
   is the Sovereign's prerogative to declare war, make peace, and direct
   the actions of the military, although the Prime Minister holds de facto
   decision-making power over the British armed forces. Many of the
   Sovereign's prerogative powers are exercised through the Privy Council.

   The Royal Prerogative, in addition, extends to foreign affairs. The
   Sovereign may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and
   international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required.
   However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom;
   an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The Sovereign also
   accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives
   diplomats from foreign states. In addition, all British passports are
   issued in the monarch's name.

   Furthermore, the Sovereign is deemed the fount of justice, and is
   responsible for rendering justice for all subjects. The Sovereign does
   not personally rule in judicial cases; instead, judicial functions are
   performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on
   the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown.
   The common law holds that the Sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch
   cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences.
   The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown
   in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government);
   however, lawsuits against the monarch personally are not cognizable.
   The Sovereign also exercises the "prerogative of mercy," and may pardon
   offences against the Crown. Pardons may be awarded before, during, or
   after a trial.

   Similarly, the monarch is also the fount of honour, or the source of
   all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. Thus, the Crown
   creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry,
   grants knighthoods, and awards other honours. In practice, peerages and
   most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister.
   Some honours, however, are within the personal gift of the Sovereign,
   and are not granted on ministerial advice. Thus, the monarch alone
   appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle,
   the Royal Victorian Order, and the Order of Merit.

   Finally, the Sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the Church of
   England, the officially established church in England. As such, the
   monarch has the power to appoint archbishops and bishops. The Prime
   Minister, however, chooses the appointee, though he or she must select
   from a list of nominees prepared by the Crown Nominations Commission.
   The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior
   clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is seen as the spiritual
   leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The
   monarch is only an ordinary member, and not the head or leader, of the
   Church of Scotland; however, he or she does hold the power to appoint
   the Lord High Commissioner to the Church's General Assembly. The
   Sovereign plays no formal role in the Church in Wales and the Church of
   Ireland, neither of which is an established church.

   The Great Seal of the Realm is the device used to authenticate
   important official documents, including letters patent, proclamations,
   and writs of election. The Great Seal of the Realm is in the custody of
   the Lord Chancellor. For matters relating exclusively to Scotland or
   Northern Ireland, the Great Seal of Scotland or the Great Seal of
   Northern Ireland is used, as the case may be.

   The monarch also has the power to claim any sturgeons, porpoises,
   whales, or dolphins that are either washed ashore, or captured within 3
   miles of the British coast. This power comes from a statute from King
   Edward II in 1324. Today, if you purchase a sturgeon, you still request
   the honour as an act of loyalty to the crown.

Finances

   Parliament meets much of the Sovereign's official expenditure from
   public funds. The Civil List is the sum that covers most expenses,
   including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and
   official entertainment. The size of the Civil List is fixed by
   Parliament every ten years; however, any money saved may be carried
   forward to the next ten year period. Thus, the Sovereign's Civil List
   expenditure in 2003 was approximately £9.9 million. In addition, the
   Sovereign receives an annual Property Services Grant-in-Aid (£15.3
   million for FY 2003–2004) to pay for the upkeep of the royal
   residences, as well as an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid (£5.9
   million for FY 2003–2004). The Civil List and the Grants-in-Aid are
   paid from public funds.

   Formerly, the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary
   revenues, including the profits of the Crown Estate. In 1760, however,
   King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the
   Crown in return for the Civil List; this arrangement still persists. In
   modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate have by far
   exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid provided to the monarch. For
   example, the Crown Estate produced over £170 million for the Treasury
   in the financial year 2003–2004, whereas parliamentary funding for the
   monarch was less than £40 million during the same period. The monarch
   continues to own the Crown Estate, but cannot sell it; instead, the
   estate must continue to pass from one Sovereign to the next.

   Aside from the Crown Estate, the Sovereign also owns the Duchy of
   Lancaster. The Duchy is the monarch's private inherited property,
   unlike the Crown Estate, which belongs to the monarch in an official
   capacity. Like the Crown Estate, however, the Duchy is held in trust,
   and cannot be sold by the monarch. The revenues of the Duchy of
   Lancaster need not be surrendered to the Treasury; instead, they form a
   part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the
   Civil List. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to
   meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son.

   The Sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as the value added tax
   (VAT), but is exempt from income tax and capital gains tax. Since 1993,
   however, the Queen has voluntarily paid taxes on personal income. As
   the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are used solely for official
   expenditure, they are not taken into account when calculating taxes.

Residences

   Buckingham Palace is the monarch's principal residence.
   Enlarge
   Buckingham Palace is the monarch's principal residence.

   The Sovereign's primary official residence is Buckingham Palace in the
   City of Westminster. Buckingham Palace is the site of most state
   banquets, investitures, royal christenings, and other ceremonies.
   Moreover, visiting heads of state usually reside in Buckingham Palace.
   Another principal residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied
   castle in the world. Windsor Castle, located in Windsor, Berkshire, is
   used principally as a weekend retreat; the monarch also resides there
   during the Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that forms a major part
   of the social calendar. The Sovereign's principal official residence in
   Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse, more commonly called Holyrood
   Palace, in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood Palace for at least
   one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.

   There also exist a number of other palaces not used as residences by
   the monarch. The Palace of Westminster was originally the Sovereign's
   primary residence until 1530; although it is still officially a royal
   palace, it serves as the home to both Houses of Parliament. Thereafter,
   the Sovereign's principal London residence was the Palace of Whitehall,
   which was destroyed by fire in 1698, to be replaced by St. James's
   Palace. Although it was replaced as the monarch's primary residence by
   Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still used for various
   official functions. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to
   the Court of St. James's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of
   the Accession Council. However, St James's Palace is not one of the
   Sovereign's official residences; instead, it is used by other members
   of the Royal Family. Other residences used by the Royal Family include
   Clarence House (presently the home of the heir-apparent, The Prince of
   Wales) and Kensington Palace.

   The aforementioned residences belong to the Crown; they are held in
   trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch. However,
   the monarch does own certain homes in a private capacity. Sandringham
   House, a privately owned country house near the village of Sandringham,
   Norfolk, is typically used from Christmas to the end of January.
   Similarly, during parts of August and September, the monarch resides in
   Balmoral Castle, a privately owned castle in Aberdeenshire in Scotland.

Style

   The present Sovereign's full style and title is: Elizabeth the Second,
   by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
   Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of
   the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith. The title Head of the
   Commonwealth is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the
   British Crown. (However, her father, George VI, was also recognised as
   such.) Pope Leo X first granted the title Defender of the Faith to King
   Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during
   the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his
   book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. However, Henry VIII later
   broke from the Roman Catholic Church and established the Church of
   England; Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law
   authorising its continued use.

   The Sovereign is known as "His Majesty" or "Her Majesty," though, in
   certain formal circumstances, "Most Gracious Majesty" or "Most
   Excellent Majesty" is used instead. The form "Britannic Majesty"
   appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the
   British monarch from foreign rulers. Queens Consort (wives of Kings)
   and Queens Dowager (widows of Kings) are also entitled to the style
   "Majesty," but husbands of female monarchs are not. Thus, the husband
   of the present Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh, is only styled Royal
   Highness.

   The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, which is not necessarily
   his or her first name - King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen
   Victoria did not use their first names.

   The ordinal used for the monarch only takes into account monarchs since
   the Norman Conquest. If only one monarch has used a particular name,
   then no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is never known as
   "Victoria I." After the Union of England and Scotland in 1707,
   numbering was based solely on previous English monarchs, and not on
   Scottish ones. In 1953, however, Scottish nationalists challenged the
   right of the Queen to style herself "Elizabeth II," on the grounds that
   there had never before been an "Elizabeth I" in Scotland. In MacCormick
   v. Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the
   plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own
   choice and prerogative. Nevertheless, it was announced that future
   monarchs would use the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals.
   Retroactively applying this policy yields no change in numbering.

   Traditionally, a monarch's signature includes his or her regnal name
   (but not ordinal) followed by the letter R. The letter stands for rex
   or regina ("king" and "queen", respectively, in Latin). Hence, the
   present Queen signs "Elizabeth R". From 1877 until 1948, the reigning
   King or Queen also signed an I, due to his or her status as Emperor or
   Empress of India; thus Queen Victoria would sign her name "Victoria
   RI".

Arms of Dominion

   The Royal Standard is the Sovereign's official flag in England, Wales
   and Northern Ireland.
   Enlarge
   The Royal Standard is the Sovereign's official flag in England, Wales
   and Northern Ireland.
   A slightly different form of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland.
   Enlarge
   A slightly different form of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland.

   The coat of arms used by the Sovereign, known as the Arms of Dominion,
   are: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or
   (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure
   flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed
   Argent (for Ireland). The supporters are the lion and the unicorn; the
   motto is Dieu et mon Droit (French for "God and my Right"). Ireland is
   represented even though most of the island is not a part of the United
   Kingdom, but instead forms the Republic of Ireland – only Northern
   Ireland remains part of the UK.

   In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the Arms of
   Dominion in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and
   III Ireland. The motto is Nemo me impune lacessit (Latin for "No-one
   provokes me with impunity"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion.

   The monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is known as the Royal
   Standard, and depicts the Arms of Dominion. (The Royal Standard used in
   Scotland depicts the Scottish version of the arms.) This flag is only
   flown from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is
   present; elsewhere, the Union Flag is flown. The Royal Standard is
   never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one
   dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.

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