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Book of Kells

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General Literature

   This page (folio 292r) contains the lavishly decorated text that opens
   the Gospel of John.
   Enlarge
   This page (folio 292r) contains the lavishly decorated text that opens
   the Gospel of John.

   The Book of Kells (less widely known as the Book of Columba) is an
   ornately illustrated manuscript, produced by Celtic monks around AD
   800. It is one of the more lavishly illuminated manuscripts to survive
   from the Middle Ages and has been described as the zenith of Western
   calligraphy and illumination. It contains the four gospels of the Bible
   in Latin, along with prefatory and explanatory matter decorated with
   numerous colourful illustrations and illuminations. Today it is on
   permanent display at the Trinity College Library in Dublin, Ireland
   where it is catalogued as MS 58.

History

Origin

   Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels contains the incipit Liber
   generationis from the Gospel of Matthew. Compare this page with the
   corresponding page from the Book of Kells (see here), especially the
   form of the "Lib" monogram.
   Enlarge
   Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels contains the incipit Liber
   generationis from the Gospel of Matthew. Compare this page with the
   corresponding page from the Book of Kells (see here), especially the
   form of the "Lib" monogram.

   The Book of Kells is the high point of a group of manuscripts produced
   from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in monasteries in
   Ireland, Scotland and northern England and in continental monasteries
   with Irish or English foundations. These manuscripts include the
   Cathach of St. Columba, the Ambrosiana Orosius, a fragmentary gospel in
   the Durham cathedral library (all from the early 7th century), and the
   Book of Durrow (from the second half of the 7th century). From the
   early 8th century come the Durham Gospels, the Echternach Gospels, the
   Lindisfarne Gospels (see illustration at right), and the Lichfield
   Gospels. The St. Gall Gospel Book and the Macregal Gospels come from
   the late 8th century. The Book of Armagh (dated to 807-809), the Turin
   Gospel Book Fragment, the Leiden Priscian, the St. Gall Priscian and
   the Macdurnan Gospel all date from the early 9th century. Scholars
   place these manuscripts together based on similarities in artistic
   style, script, and textual traditions. The fully developed style of the
   ornamentation of the Book of Kells places it late in this series,
   either from the late eighth or early ninth century. The Book of Kells
   follows many of the iconographic and stylistic traditions found in
   these earlier manuscripts. For example, the form of the decorated
   letters found in the incipit pages for the Gospels is surprisingly
   consistent in Insular Gospels. Compare, for example, the incipit pages
   of the Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels and in the Book of
   Kells both of which feature intricate decorative knotwork inside the
   outlines formed by the enlarged initial letters of the text. (For a
   more complete list of related manuscripts see: List of Hiberno-Saxon
   illustrated manuscripts.)

   The name "Book of Kells" is derived from the Abbey of Kells in Kells,
   County Meath in Ireland, where it was kept for much of the medieval
   period. The Abbey of Kells was founded in the early ninth century, at
   the time of the Viking invasions, by monks from the monastery at Iona
   (off the Western coast of Scotland). Iona, which had been a missionary
   centre for the Columban community, had been founded by St. Columba in
   the middle of the 6th century. When repeated Viking raids made Iona too
   dangerous, the majority of the community removed to Kells, which became
   the centre of the group of communities founded by St. Columba.

   The date and place of production of the manuscript has been the subject
   of considerable debate. Traditionally, the book was thought to have
   been created in the time of Saint Columba (also known as St.
   Columcille), possibly even as the work of his own hands. However, it is
   now generally accepted that this tradition is false based on
   palaeographic grounds: the style of script in which the book is written
   did not develop until well after Columba's death, making it impossible
   for him to have written it.

   The manuscript was never finished. There are at least five competing
   theories about the manuscript's place of origin and time of completion.
   First, the book may have been created entirely at Iona, then brought to
   Kells and never finished. Second, the book may have been begun at Iona
   and continued at Kells, but never finished. Third, the manuscript may
   have been produced entirely in the scriptorium at Kells. Fourth, it may
   have been produced in the north of England, perhaps at Lindisfarne,
   then brought to Iona and from there to Kells. Finally, it may have been
   the product of an unknown monastery in Scotland. Although the question
   of the exact location of the book's production will probably never be
   answered conclusively, the second theory, that it was begun at Iona and
   finished at Kells, is currently the most widely accepted. Regardless of
   which theory is true, it is certain that Kells was produced by Columban
   monks closely associated with the community at Iona.

Mediæval period

   Wherever it was made, the book soon came to its namesake city of Kells.
   It probably arrived in the early 11th century, and was definitely there
   by the twelfth.

   The evidence for an eleventh century arrival consists of an entry in
   the Annals of Ulster for 1006. This entry records that "the great
   Gospel of Columkille, the chief relic of the Western World, was
   wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of the great
   stone church at Cenannas on account of its wrought shrine". Cenannas
   was the medieval Irish name for Kells. The manuscript was recovered a
   few months later - minus its golden and bejewelled cover - "under a
   sod". It is generally assumed that the "great Gospel of Columkille" is
   the Book of Kells. If this is correct, then the book had arrived in
   Kells by 1006, and been there long enough for thieves to learn of its
   presence. The force of ripping the manuscript free from its cover may
   account for the folios missing from the beginning and end of the Book
   of Kells.

   Regardless, the book was certainly at Kells in the 12th century, when
   land charters pertaining to the Abbey of Kells were copied into some of
   the book's blank pages. The copying of charters into important books
   such as the Book of Kells was a wide-spread mediaeval practice, which
   gives us indisputable evidence about the location of the book at the
   time the charters were written into it.
   Folio 27v contains the four evangelist symbols.
   Enlarge
   Folio 27v contains the four evangelist symbols.

   The 12th century writer, Gerald of Wales, in his Topographia Hibernica,
   described, in a famous passage, seeing a great Gospel Book in Kildare
   which many have since assumed was the Book of Kells. The description
   certainly matches Kells:

          "This book contains the harmony of the four Evangelists
          according to Jerome, where for almost every page there are
          different designs, distinguished by varied colours. Here you may
          see the face of majesty, divinely drawn, here the mystic symbols
          of the Evangelists, each with wings, now six, now four, now two;
          here the eagle, there the calf, here the man and there the lion,
          and other forms almost infinite. Look at them superficially with
          the ordinary glance, and you would think it is an erasure, and
          not tracery. Fine craftsmanship is all about you, but you might
          not notice it. Look more keenly at it and you will penetrate to
          the very shrine of art. You will make out intricacies, so
          delicate and so subtle, so full of knots and links, with colours
          so fresh and vivid, that you might say that all this was the
          work of an angel, and not of a man."

   Since Gerald claims to have seen his book in Kildare, he may have seen
   another, now lost, book equal in quality to the Book of Kells, or he
   may have been confused as to his location when seeing Kells.

   The Abbey of Kells was dissolved due to the ecclesiastical reforms of
   the 12th century. The abbey church was converted to a parish church in
   which the Book of Kells remained.

Modern period

   The Book of Kells remained in Kells until 1654. In that year Cromwell's
   cavalry was quartered in the church at Kells and the governor of the
   town sent the book to Dublin for safe keeping. The book was presented
   to Trinity College in Dublin in 1661 by Henry Jones, who was to become
   bishop of Meath after the Restoration. The book has remained at Trinity
   College since the 17th century, except for brief loans to other
   libraries and museums. It has been displayed to the public in the Old
   Library at Trinity since the 19th century.

   In the 16th century, the chapter numbers of the Gospels according to
   the division created by the 13th century Archbishop of Canterbury,
   Stephen Langton were written in the margins of the pages in roman
   numerals by Gerald Plunkett of Dublin. In 1621 the folios were numbered
   by the bishop-elect of Meath, James Ussher. In 1849 Queen Victoria and
   Prince Albert were invited to sign the book. They in fact signed a
   modern flyleaf which was erroneously believed to have been one of the
   original folios. The page which they signed was removed when the book
   was rebound in 1953.

   Over the centuries the book has been rebound several times. During an
   18th century rebinding, the pages were rather unsympathetically
   cropped, with small parts of some illustrations being lost. The book
   was also rebound in 1895, but that rebinding broke down quickly. By the
   late 1920s several folios were being kept loose under a separate cover.
   In 1953, the work was bound in four volumes by Roger Powell, who also
   gently stretched several of the pages, which had developed bulges.

   In 2000, the volume containing the Gospel of Mark was sent to Canberra,
   Australia for an exhibition of illuminated manuscripts. This was only
   the fourth time the Book of Kells had been sent abroad for exhibition.
   Unfortunately, the volume suffered what has been called "minor pigment
   damage" while en route to Canberra. It is thought that the vibrations
   from the aeroplane's engines during the long flight may have caused the
   damage.

Reproductions

   Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the
   text "Erat autem hora tercia" ("now it was the third hour").
   Enlarge
   Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the
   text "Erat autem hora tercia" ("now it was the third hour").

   In 1951, the Swiss publisher, Urs Graf-verlag Bern, produced a
   facsimile. The majority of the pages were reproduced in black and white
   photographs. There were, however, forty-eight pages reproduced in
   colour, including all of the full page decorations.

   In 1979, another Swiss publisher, Faksimile verlag Luzern, requested
   permission to produce a full colour facsimile of the book. Permission
   was initially denied because Trinity College officials felt that the
   risk of damage to the book was too high. In 1986, after developing a
   process which used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could
   be photographed without touching it, the publisher was given permission
   to produce a facsimile edition. After each page was photographed, a
   single page facsimile was prepared and the colours were carefully
   compared to the original and adjustments were made where necessary. The
   facsimile was published in 1990 in two volumes, the facsimile and a
   volume of commentary by prominent scholars. One copy is held by the
   Anglican Church in Kells, on the site of the original monastery. A DVD
   version containing scanned versions of all pages along with additional
   information is also available.

Description

   The Book of Kells contains the four gospels of the Christian scriptures
   written in black, red, purple, and yellow ink in an insular majuscule
   script, preceded by prefaces, summaries, and concordances of gospel
   passages. Today it consists of 340 vellum leaves, called folios. The
   majority of the folios are part of larger sheets, called bifolios,
   which are folded in half to form two folios. The bifolios are nested
   inside of each other and sewn together to form gatherings called
   quires. On occasion, a folio is not part of a bifolio, but is instead a
   single sheet inserted within a quire.

   It is believed that some 30 folios have been lost. (When the book was
   examined by Ussher in 1621 there were 344 folios.) The extant folios
   are gathered into 38 quires. There are between four and twelve folios
   per quire (two to six bifolios). Ten folios per quire is common. Some
   folios are single sheets. The important decorated pages often occurred
   on single sheets. The folios had lines drawn for the text, sometimes on
   both sides, after the bifolia were folded. Prick marks and guide lines
   can still be seen on some pages. The vellum is of high quality,
   although the folios have an uneven thickness, with some being almost
   leather, while others are so thin as to be almost translucent. The
   book's current dimensions are 330 by 250 mm. Originally the folios were
   not of standard size, but they were cropped to the current standard
   size during an 18th century rebinding. The text area is approximately
   250 by 170 mm. Each text page has 16 to 18 lines of text. The
   manuscript is in remarkably good condition. The book was apparently
   left unfinished, as some of the artwork appears only in outline.

Contents

   The book, as it exists now, contains preliminary matter, the complete
   text of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke, and the Gospel of John
   through John 17:13. The remainder of John and an unknown amount of the
   preliminary matter is missing and was perhaps lost when the book was
   stolen in the early 11th century. The extant preliminary matter
   consists of two fragments of lists of Hebrew names contained in the
   gospels, the Breves causae and the Argumenta of the four gospels, and
   the Eusebian canon tables. It is probable that, like the Lindisfarne
   Gospels and the Books of Durrow and Armagh, part of the lost
   preliminary material included the letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus I
   known as Novum opus, in which Jerome explains the purpose of his
   translation. It is also possible, though less likely, that the lost
   material included the letter of Eusebius, known as Plures fuisse, in
   which he explains the use of the canon tables. (Of all the insular
   gospels, only Lindisfarne contains this letter.)

   There are two fragments of the lists of Hebrew names; one on the recto
   of the first surviving folio and one on folio 26, which is currently
   inserted at the end of the prefatory matter for John. The first list
   fragment contains the end of the list for the Gospel of Matthew. The
   missing names from Matthew would require an additional two folios. The
   second list fragment, on folio 26, contains about a fourth of the list
   for Luke. The list for Luke would require an additional three folios.
   The structure of the quire in which folio 26 occurs is such that it is
   unlikely that there are three folios missing between folios 26 and 27,
   so that it is almost certain that folio 26 is not now in its original
   location. There is no trace of the lists for Mark and John.
   Folio 5r contains a page of the Eusebian Canon Tables.
   Enlarge
   Folio 5r contains a page of the Eusebian Canon Tables.

   The first list fragment is followed by the canon tables of Eusebius of
   Caesarea. These tables, which predate the text of the Vulgate, were
   developed to cross reference the gospels. Eusebius divided the Gospel
   into chapters and then created tables which allowed readers to find
   where a given episode in the life of Christ was located in each of the
   Gospels. The canon tables were traditionally included in the prefatory
   material in most mediaeval copies of the Vulgate text of the Gospels.
   The tables in the Book of Kells, however, are almost unusable because
   the scribe condensed the tables into in such a way as to make them
   confused. In addition, the corresponding chapter numbers were never
   inserted into the margins of the text, making it impossible to find the
   sections to which the canon tables refer. The reason these chapter
   numbers were never inserted is uncertain. It may have been planned to
   insert them when the decoration was completed, but since the decoration
   was never completed, they were never inserted. It also may be that it
   was decided to leave them out so as not to mar the appearance of pages.
   Folio 19 contains the beginning of the Breves causae of Luke.
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   Folio 19 contains the beginning of the Breves causae of Luke.

   The Breves causae and the Argumenta belong to a pre-Vulgate tradition
   of manuscripts. The Breves causae are summaries of the Old Latin
   translations of the Gospels. They are divided into numbered chapters.
   These chapter numbers, like the numbers for the canon tables, are also
   not used on the text pages of the gospels. However, it is unlikely that
   these numbers would have been used, even if the manuscript had been
   completed, because the chapter numbers corresponded to old Latin
   translations and would have been difficult to harmonise with the
   Vulgate text. The Argumenta are collections of legends about the
   Evangelists. The Breves causae and Argumenta are arranged in a strange
   order: first come the Breves causae and Argumenta for Matthew, followed
   by the Breves and Argumenta for Mark, then, quite oddly, come the
   Argumenta of Luke and John, followed by the Breves causae of Luke and
   John. This anomalous order is the same as is found in the Book of
   Durrow, although the out of place Breves causae of Luke and John are
   placed at the end of the manuscript in Durrow, while the rest of the
   preliminaries are at the beginning. In other insular manuscripts, such
   as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Book of Armagh, and the Echternach
   Gospels, each Gospel is treated as separate work and has its
   preliminaries immediately preceding it. The slavish repetition in Kells
   of the order of the Breves causae and Argumenta found in Durrow led the
   scholar T. K. Abbot to the conclusion that the scribe of Kells had
   either the Book of Durrow, or a common model in hand.

Text and script

   The Book of Kells contains the text of the four gospels based on the
   Vulgate. It does not, however, contain a pure copy of the Vulgate.
   There are numerous variants from the Vulgate, where Old Latin
   translations are used rather than Jerome's text. Although these
   variants are common in all of the insular gospels, there does not seem
   to be a consistent pattern of variation amongst the various insular
   texts. It is thought that when the scribes were writing the text they
   often depended on memory rather than on their exemplar.
   Folio 309r contains text from the Gospel of John written in Insular
   majuscule by the scribe known as "Hand B".
   Enlarge
   Folio 309r contains text from the Gospel of John written in Insular
   majuscule by the scribe known as "Hand B".

   The manuscript is written in Insular majuscule, with some minuscule
   letters usually "c" and "s". The text is usually written in one long
   line across the page. Francoise Henry identified at least three scribes
   in this manuscript, whom she named Hand A, Hand B, and Hand C. Hand A
   is found on folios 1 through 19v, folios 276 through 289 and folios 307
   through the end of the manuscript. Hand A for the most part writes
   eighteen or nineteen lines per page in the brown gall-ink common
   throughout the west. Hand B is found on folios 19r through 26 and
   folios 124 through 128. Hand B has a somewhat greater tendency to use
   minuscule and uses red, purple and black ink and a variable number of
   lines per page. Hand C is found throughout the majority of the text.
   Hand C also has greater tendency to use minuscule than Hand A. Hand C
   uses the same brownish gall-ink used by hand A, and wrote, almost
   always, seventeen lines per page.
   Luke's genealogy of Jesus (extends over three pages)
   Enlarge
   Luke's genealogy of Jesus (extends over three pages)

Errors

   There are a number of differences between the text and the accepted
   gospels.
     * In the genealogy of Jesus, which starts at Luke 3:23, Kells
       erroneously names an extra ancestor.
     * Matthew 10:34b should read “I came not to send peace, but the
       sword”. However rather than “gladium” which means “ sword”, Kells
       has “gaudium” meaning “ joy”. Rendering the verse in translation:
       “I came not [only] to send peace, but joy”.

Decoration

   The text is accompanied by incredibly intricate full pages of artwork,
   with smaller painted decorations appearing throughout the text itself.
   The book has a broad palette of colours with purple, lilac, red, pink,
   green, yellow being the colours most often used. (The illustrations in
   the Book of Durrow, by contrast, use only four colours.) Surprisingly,
   given the lavish nature of the work, there was no use of gold or silver
   leaf in the manuscript. The pigments used for the illustrations had to
   be imported from all over Europe; the immensely expensive blue lapis
   lazuli came from Afghanistan.

   The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other
   surviving insular gospel book. There are ten surviving full page
   illuminations including two evangelist portraits, three pages with the
   four evangelist symbols, a carpet page, a miniature of the Virgin and
   Child, a miniature of Christ enthroned, and miniatures of the Arrest of
   Jesus and the Temptation of Christ. There are 13 surviving full pages
   of decorated text including pages for the first few words of each of
   the gospels. There are many pages where only some of the text on the
   page is decorated. Eight of the ten pages of the canon tables have
   extensive decoration. It is highly probable that there were other pages
   of miniature and decorated text that are now lost. In addition to these
   major pages there are a host of smaller decorations and decorated
   initials scattered throughout the text.

   The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the
   glossary of Hebrew names. This fragment occupies one column of folio 1
   recto. The other column of the folio is occupied by a miniature of the
   four evangelist symbols, now much abraded. The miniature is oriented so
   that the volume must be turned ninety degrees in order to view it
   properly. The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs
   throughout the book. They are almost always shown together so that the
   doctrine of unity of message of the four Gospels is emphasised.
   Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the Eusebian Canon Tables
   Enlarge
   Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the Eusebian Canon Tables

   The unity of the Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the
   Eusebian canon tables. The canon tables themselves are designed to
   establish the unity of the Gospels by allowing readers to find
   corresponding passages from the gospels. The Eusebian canon tables
   normally requires twelve pages. In the Book of Kells the makers of the
   manuscript planned for twelve pages (folios 1v through 7r), but for
   unknown reasons condensed them into ten pages, leaving folios 6v and 7r
   blank. This condensation caused the canon tables to be unusable. The
   decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily
   influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean. It was
   traditional to enclose the tables in an arcade. (See, for example the
   London Canon Tables). Kells does this, but with an Insular spirit. The
   arcades are not seen as architectural elements, but are rather stylised
   into geometric patterns which are then decorated with Insular motifs.
   The four evangelist symbols occupy the spaces under and above the
   arches. The last two canon tables are presented within a grid. This
   presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in
   the Book of Durrow.

   The remainder of the book after the canon tables is broken into
   sections with the beginning of each section being marked by miniatures
   and full pages of decorated text. Each of the Gospels is introduced by
   a consistent decorative programme. The preliminary matter is treated as
   one section and introduced by a lavish decorative spread. In addition
   to the preliminaries and the Gospels, the "second beginning" of the
   Gospel of Matthew is also given its own introductory decoration.
   Folio 7v contains an image of the Virgin and Child. This is the oldest
   extant image of the Virgin Mary in a western manuscript.
   Enlarge
   Folio 7v contains an image of the Virgin and Child. This is the oldest
   extant image of the Virgin Mary in a western manuscript.

   The preliminary matter is introduced by an iconic image of the Virgin
   and Child (folio 7v). This miniature is the first representation of the
   Virgin in a western manuscript. Mary is shown in an odd mixture of
   frontal and three-quarter pose. This miniature also bears a stylistic
   similarity to the carvings on the lid of St. Cuthbert's coffin. The
   iconography of the miniature may ultimately derive from an Eastern or
   Coptic icon.

   The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of text and
   is an appropriate preface to the beginning of the Breves Causae of
   Matthew, which begins Nativitas Christi in Bethlem (the birth of Christ
   in Bethlehem). The beginning page ( folio 8r) of the text of the Breves
   Causae is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame. The two
   page spread of the miniature and the text make a vivid introductory
   statement for the prefatory material. The opening line of each of the
   sections of the preliminary matter is enlarged and decorated (see above
   for the Breves causae of Luke), but no other section of the
   preliminaries is given the same level of treatment as the beginning of
   the Breves Causae of Matthew.
   Folio 291v contains a portrait of John the Evangelist.
   Enlarge
   Folio 291v contains a portrait of John the Evangelist.

   The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an
   elaborate introductory decorative programme. Each Gospel was originally
   prefaced by a full page miniature containing the four evangelist
   symbols, followed by a blank page. Then came a portrait of the
   evangelist which faced the opening text of the gospel which was given
   an elaborate decorative treatment. The Gospel of Matthew retains both
   its Evangelist portrait ( folio 28v) and its page of Evangelist symbols
   (folio 27r, see above). The Gospel of Mark is missing the Evangelist
   portrait, but retains its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 129v). The
   Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols
   page. The Gospel of John, like the Matthew retains both its portrait
   (folio 291v, see at right) and its Evangelist symbols page ( folio
   290v). It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke, and the
   symbols page for Luke at one time existed, but have been lost. The use
   of all four of the Evangelist symbols in front of each Gospel is
   striking and was intended to reinforce the message of the unity of the
   Gospels.
   Folio 29r contains the incipit to the Gospel of Matthew .
   Enlarge
   Folio 29r contains the incipit to the Gospel of Matthew .

   The decoration of the opening few words of each Gospel was lavish.
   These pages were, in effect turned into carpet pages. The decoration of
   these texts is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible.
   The opening page (folio 28r) of Matthew may stand as an example. (See
   illustration at left.) The page consists of only two words Liber
   generationis ("The book of the generation"). The "lib" of Liber is
   turned in to a giant monogram which dominates the entire page. The "er"
   of Liber is presented as interlaced ornament within the "b" of the
   "lib" monogram. Generationis is broken into three lines and contained
   within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page. The
   entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border. The border
   and the letters themselves are further decorated with elaborate spirals
   and knot work, many of them zoomorphic. The opening words of Mark,
   Initium evangelii ("The beginning of the gospel"), Luke, Quoniam quidem
   multi, and John In principio erat verbum ("In the beginning was the
   Word") are all given similar treatments. Although the decoration of
   these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells, these pages were
   decorated in all of the other Insular Gospel Books.

   The Gospel of Matthew begins with a genealogy of Jesus. At Matthew
   1:18, the actual narrative of Christ's life starts. This "second
   beginning" to Matthew was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books, so
   much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works. The
   "second beginning" begins with the word "Christ". The Greek letters "
   Chi" and " Rho" were often used in mediaeval manuscripts to abbreviate
   the word "Christ". In Insular Gospel Books the initial " Chi Rho
   monogram" was enlarged and decorated. In the Book of Kells, this second
   beginning was given a decorative programme equal to the those that
   preface the individual Gospels. Folio 32 verso has a miniature of
   Christ enthroned. (It has been argued that this miniature is one of the
   lost evangelist portraits. However the iconography is quite different
   from the extant portraits, and current scholarship accepts this
   identification and placement for this miniature.) Facing this
   miniature, on folio 33 recto, is the only Carpet Page in the Kells.
   (The single Carpet Page in Kells is a bit anomalous. The Lindisfarne
   Gospels has five extant Carpet Pages and the Book of Durrow has six.)
   The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of
   the early mediaeval period, the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram, which
   serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ.
   Folio 34r contains the Chi Rho monogram. Chi and Rho are the first two
   letters of the word "Christ" in Greek.
   Enlarge
   Folio 34r contains the Chi Rho monogram. Chi and Rho are the first two
   letters of the word " Christ" in Greek.

   In the Book of Kells, the Chi Rho monogram has grown to consume the
   entire page. The letter "Chi" dominates the page with one arm swooping
   across the majority of the page. The letter "Rho" is snuggled
   underneath the arms of the Chi. Both letters are divided into
   compartment which are lavishly decorated with knot work and other
   patterns. The background is likewise awash in mass of swirling and
   knotted decoration. Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals
   and insects. Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the Chi.
   This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram
   in any Insular Gospel Books and is the culmination of a tradition that
   started with the Book of Durrow.

   The Book of Kells contains two other Full page miniatures which
   illustrate episodes from the Passion story. The text of Matthew is
   illustrated with full page illumination of the Arrest of Christ ( folio
   114r). Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two
   much smaller figures. In the text of Luke there is a full sized
   miniature of the Temptation of Christ ( folio 202v). Christ is shown
   from the waist up on top of the Temple. To his a right is a crowd of
   people, perhaps representing his disciples. To his left and below him
   is a black figure of Satan. Above him hover two angels.

   The verso of the folio containing the Arrest of Christ contains a full
   page of decorated text which begins " Tunc dicit illis". Facing the
   miniature of the Temptation is another full page of decorated text
   (folio 203r "Iesus autem plenus"). In addition to this page five other
   full pages also receive elaborate treatment. In Matthew there is one
   other full page treatment of ( folio 124r, "Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum
   eo duos latrones"). In the Gospel of Mark, there are also two pages of
   decorated text ( folio 183r, "Erat autem hora tercia", and folio 187v
   "[Et Dominus] quidem [Iesus] postquam"). The Gospel of Luke contains
   two pages of fully decorated text. (folio 188v "Fuit in diebus Herodis
   ", and folio 285r "Una autem sabbati valde"). Although these texts do
   not have miniatures associated with them it is probable that miniatures
   were planned to accompany each of these texts and have either been
   lost, or were never completed. There is no surviving full page of text
   in the Gospel of John other than the Incipit. However, in the other
   three Gospels all of the full pages of decorated text, except for folio
   188c which begins the Nativity narration, occur within the Passion
   narrative. However, since the missing folios of John contain the
   Passion narrative, it is likely that John contained full pages of
   decorated text that have been lost.
   Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small
   illuminations like this decorated initial.
   Enlarge
   Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small
   illuminations like this decorated initial.

   The decoration of the book is not limited to the major pages. Indeed
   all but two pages have at least some decoration. Scattered through the
   text are decorated initials and small figures of animals and humans
   often twisted and tied into complicated knots. Many significant texts,
   such as the Pater Noster have decorated initials. The page containing
   text of the Beatitudes in Matthew ( folio 40v) has a large miniature
   along the left margin of the page in which the letter "B" which begins
   each line is linked into an ornate chain. The genealogy of Christ found
   in the Gospel of Luke ( folio 200r) contains a similar miniature in
   which the word "qui" is repeatedly linked along the left margin. Many
   of the small animals scattered throughout the text serve to mark a
   "turn-in-the-path" (that is, a place where a line is finished in a
   space above or below the original line). Many other animals serve to
   fill spaces left at the end of lines. No two of these designs are the
   same. No earlier surviving manuscript has this massive amount of
   decoration.
   The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen
   in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)
   Enlarge
   The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen
   in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)

   The decorations are all of high quality. The complexity of these
   designs is often breath-taking. In one decoration, which occupies one
   inch square piece of a page, it is possible to count as many as 158
   complex interlacements of white ribbon with a black border on either
   side. Some decorations can only be fully appreciated with magnifying
   glasses, although glasses of the required power were not available
   until hundreds of years after the book's completion. The complicated
   knot work and interweaving found in Kells and related manuscripts have
   many parallels in the metalwork and stone carving of the period. These
   design have also had an enduring popularity. Indeed many of these
   motifs are used today in popular art including jewellery and tattoos.

Use

   The book had a sacramental, rather than educational purpose. A large,
   lavish Gospel, such as the Book of Kells would have been left on the
   high altar of the church, and taken off only for the reading of the
   Gospel during Mass. However, it is probable that the reader would not
   actually read the text from the book, but rather recite from memory. It
   is significant that the Chronicles of Ulster state that the book was
   stolen from the sacristy (where the vessels and other accruements of
   the mass were stored) rather than from the monastic library. The design
   of the book seems to take this purpose in mind, that is the book was
   produced to look good rather than be useful. There are numerous
   uncorrected mistakes in the text. Lines were often completed in a blank
   space in the line above. The chapter headings that were necessary to
   make the canon tables usable were not inserted into the margins of the
   page. In general, nothing was done to disrupt the aesthetic look of the
   page: aesthetics were given a priority over utility.

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