   #copyright

Aztec

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology

   CAPTION: Aztec Empire

   The Aztec empire in Mesoamerica
   Capital           1248- 1325 Unknown (Nomads)
                     1325- 1521 Tenochtitlan
                     ( Tenochtitlan founded)-( Tenochtitlan lost in war)
   Official language Náhuatl
   Government
   Head of Nation
   High councilor
   Electing council
   Approving Council
                     Tributary Empire
                     Hueyi Tlatoani (non-hederitary autocrat)
                     Cihuacóatl ( snake woman)
                     Oligarchs ( military, religious, nobility)
                     80+ calpulli leaders ( elder)
   Establishment
   Dissolution
   Population 1520   1248
                     1521
                     est. -10,000,000
   The Aztec world
   Aztec society

   Nahuatl language
   Aztec philosophy
   Aztec calendar
   Aztec religion
   Aztec mythology
   Aztec entheogenic complex
   Human sacrifice in Aztec culture
   Aztec history

   Aztlán
   Aztec army
   Aztec codices
   Aztec Triple Alliance
   Spanish conquest of Mexico
   Siege of Tenochtitlan
   La Noche Triste
   Hernán Cortés
   Hueyi Tlatoani

   Tenoch ( 1325– 1376)
   Acamapichtli ( 1376– 1395)
   Huitzilíhuitl ( 1395– 1417)
   Chimalpopoca ( 1417– 1427)
   Itzcóatl ( 1427– 1440)
   Moctezuma I ( 1440– 1469)
   Axayacatl ( 1469– 1481)
   Tízoc ( 1481– 1486)
   Auítzotl ( 1486– 1502)
   Moctezuma II ( 1502– 1520)
   Cuitláhuac ( 1520)
   Cuauhtémoc ( 1520– 1521)

   The Aztecs were a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people of central Mexico
   in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries who built an extensive empire in
   the late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology. They called
   themselves Mexicas ( Classical Nahuatl: Mexìcâ, IPA: [meˈʃiʔkaʔ]).

   The nucleus of the Aztec Empire was the Valley of Mexico, where their
   capital Tenochtitlan was built upon raised islets in Lake Texcoco.
   After the 1521 conquest and fall of Tenochtitlan by Spanish forces and
   their allies which brought about the effective end of Aztec dominion,
   the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of
   the now-ruined Aztec capital. The capital of the modern-day nation of
   Mexico, the greater metropolitan area of Mexico City now covers much of
   the Valley of Mexico and the now-drained Lake of Texcoco.

   Aztec civilization and society possessed a vibrant culture which
   included mandatory education and rich and complex mythological and
   religious traditions. For Europeans, the most striking element of the
   Aztec culture was the practice of human sacrifice which was conducted
   throughout Mesoamerica prior to the Spanish conquest.

   In what is probably the most widely known episode in the Spanish
   colonization of the Americas, Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs in
   1521 thus immortalizing himself and the Aztec Hueyi Tlatoani, Moctezuma
   II (Montezuma II).

   The Aztecs spoke Classical Nahuatl as did some of the other peoples
   under the domination of the Aztec Empire. Although some contemporary
   Nahuatl speakers identify themselves as Aztecs, the word is normally
   only used as a historical term referring to the empire of the Mexicas,
   as distinguished from the Mexicas alone. This article deals with the
   historical Aztec civilization, not with modern-day Nahuatl speakers.

Nomenclature

   Sculpture commemorating the moment when Aztecs found the omen from the
   god Huitzilopochtli.
   Enlarge
   Sculpture commemorating the moment when Aztecs found the omen from the
   god Huitzilopochtli.

   According to the Aubin codex, the seven Nahua tribes lived in Aztlán
   under the rule of a powerful elite. The seven tribes fled Aztlán, to
   seek new lands. The Mexicas were the last group to leave, guided by
   their priest "Huitzil". The Aubin Codex relates that after leaving
   Aztlán, Huitzilopochtli ordered his people to never identify themselves
   as Azteca, the name of their former masters. Instead they should
   henceforth call themselves Mexìcâ.

   The Spanish conquistadors referred to them as "Mexicas". In Mexico,
   archeologists and museums use the term Mexicas. The wider population in
   and outside Mexico generally speaks of Aztecs. In this article, the
   term "Mexica" is used to refer to the Mexica people up until the time
   of the formation of the Triple Alliance. After this, the term "Aztecs"
   is used to refer to the peoples who made up the Triple Alliance.

Mexica

   Mexìcâ ( IPA: [meʃiʔkaʔ]) is a term of uncertain origin. Very different
   etymologies are proposed: the old Nahuatl word for the sun, the name of
   their leader Mexitli, or a type of weed that grows in Lake Texcoco.
   Mexican scholar Miguel León-Portilla suggests that it is derived from
   mexictli, "navel of the moon", from Nahuatl metztli (moon) and xictli
   (navel). Alternatively, mexictli could mean "navel of the maguey" using
   the Nahuatl metl and the locative "co". This definition could be
   correct; others sources tell us that the name comes from the word
   Mexitli (the weed that grows in Lake Texcoco), because at the time the
   Mexicas originally arrived in the Mexico Basin, the only place to
   settle was the island in the centre of the lake. The fishing and
   hunting permissions issued by ancient rulers of the basin were denied
   to the Mexicas and to avoid starvation they had to eat the weed (a
   nutritive but not very attractive food). So the name Mexica could come
   from mexìcatl meaning "weed people".

Aztec

   In Nahuatl, the native language of the Mexicas, Aztecatl means "someone
   who comes from Aztlán". In 1810 Alexander von Humboldt originated the
   modern usage of "Aztec" as a collective term applied to all the people
   linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and
   the Triple Alliance. In 1843, with the publication of the work of
   William H. Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including
   19th century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way to distinguish
   present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been
   the subject of debate in more recent years, and the term "Mexica" is
   becoming more common.

Nahuatl

   Classical Nahuatl (also known as Aztec, and simply Nahuatl) is a term
   used to describe the variants of the Nahuatl language that were spoken
   in the Valley of Mexico -- and used throughout central Mexico as a
   lingua franca -- at the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Other
   variants of the language "Nahuatl" were spoken by many of the central
   Mexican city states under the domination of the Aztec Empire.

History

Rise of the Aztecs

   The true origin of the Mexica is uncertain. According to their legends,
   the Mexica's place of origin was Aztlán. It is generally thought that
   Aztlán was somewhere to the north of the Valley of Mexico; some experts
   have placed it as far north as the Southwestern United States. Others
   however suggest it is a mythical place, since Aztlán can be translated
   as "the place of the origin". The mythical story of these travels is
   recorded in a number of codices from the Spanish colonial era, most
   prominently the Aubin Codex and the Boturini Codex.

   Based on these codices as well as other histories, it appears that the
   Mexicas arrived at Chapultepec in or around the year 1248.

   At the time of their arrival, the Valley of Mexico contained many
   city-states, the most powerful of which were Culhuacan to the south,
   and Azcapotzalco to the west. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco soon
   expelled the Mexicas from Chapultepec. In 1299, Culhuacan ruler
   Cocoxtli gave them permission to settle in the empty barrens of
   Tizapan, where they were eventually assimilated into Culhuacan culture.
   The Valley of Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest.
   Enlarge
   The Valley of Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest.

   In 1323, the Mexica asked the new ruler of Culhuacan, Achicometl, for
   his daughter, in order to make her the goddess Yaocihuatl. Unbeknownst
   to the king, the Mexicas actually planned to sacrifice her. As the
   story goes, during a festival dinner, a priest came out wearing her
   flayed skin as part of the ritual. Upon seeing this, the king and the
   people of Culhuacan were horrified and expelled the Mexicas.

   According to Aztec legend, the Aztecs were shown a vision of an eagle
   perched on a prickly pear cactus, clutching a snake in its talons. This
   vision indicated that this was the location where they were to build
   their home. In any event, the Aztecs eventually arrived on a small
   swampy island in Lake Texcoco where they founded the town of
   Tenochtitlan in 1325. In 1376, the Mexicas elected their first Huey
   Tlatoani, Acamapichtli, who was living in Texcoco at the time.

   For the next 50 years, until 1427, the Mexica were a tributary of
   Azcapotzalco, which had become a regional power, perhaps the most
   powerful since the Toltecs, centuries earlier. When Tezozomoc, the
   tlatoani of Azcapotzalco, died in 1426, his son Maxtla ascended to the
   throne. Shortly thereafter, Maxtla assassinated Chimalpopoca, the Aztec
   ruler. In an effort to defeat Maxtla, Chimalpopoca's successor,
   Itzcoatl, allied with the exiled ruler of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. This
   coalition became the foundation of the Aztec Triple Alliance.

   The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan would, in
   the next 100 years, come to dominate the Valley of Mexico and extend
   its power to both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific shore. Over this
   period, Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant power in the
   alliance, and the Triple Alliance territories became known as the Aztec
   Empire.

   Two of the primary architects of the Aztec empire were the
   half-brothers Tlacaelel and Moctezuma I, nephews of Itzcoatl. Moctezuma
   I succeeded Itzcoatl as Hueyi Tlatoani in 1449. Although he was also
   offered the opportunity to be tlatoani, Tlacaelel preferred to operate
   as the power behind the throne. Tlacaelel reformed the Aztec state and
   religion. According to some sources, he ordered the burning of most of
   the extant Aztec books claiming that they contained lies. He thereupon
   rewrote the history of the Aztec people, thus creating a common
   awareness of history for the Aztecs. This rewriting led directly to the
   curriculum taught to scholars and promoted the belief that the Aztecs
   were always a powerful and mythic nation; forgetting forever a possible
   true history of modest origins. One component of this reform was the
   institution of ritual war (the flower wars) as a way to have trained
   warriors, and created the necessity of constant sacrifices to keep the
   Sun moving.
   Jaguar warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano
   Enlarge
   Jaguar warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano

Spanish conquest

   The empire reached its height during Ahuitzotl's reign, 1486 until
   1502. His successor, Motecuzōma Xocoyotzin (better known as Montezuma
   or Moctezuma II), had been Hueyi Tlatoani for 17 years when Hernan
   Cortés and the Spaniards landed on the Gulf Coast in the spring of
   1519.

   Despite some early battles between the two, Cortés allied himself with
   the Aztecs’ long-time enemy, the Confederacy of Tlaxcala, and arrived
   at the gates of Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519, guests of the Aztecs.

   The Spaniards and their Tlaxcallan allies became increasingly dangerous
   and unwelcome guests in capital city. In June, 1520, hostilities broke
   out, culminating in the massacre in the Main Temple and the death of
   Moctezuma. The Spaniards fled the town on July 1, an episode later
   characterized as La Noche Triste. They and their native allies returned
   in the spring of 1521 to lay siege to Tenochtitlan, a battle that ended
   that August 13 with the destruction of the city.

   Most of the Mesoamerican cultures were intact after the fall of
   Tenochtitlan. Indeed, the freedom from Aztec domination may have been
   considered a positive development by most of the other cultures. The
   upper classes of the Aztec empire were considered noblemen by the
   Spaniards and generally treated as such initially. All this changed
   rapidly and the native population were soon forbidden to study by law,
   and had the status of minors.

Population decline

   In 1520-1521, an outbreak of smallpox swept through the population of
   Tenochtitlan and was decisive in the fall of the city. It is estimated
   that between 10% and 50% of the population fell victim to this
   epidemic.

   Subsequently, the Valley of Mexico was hit with two more epidemics,
   smallpox (1545-1548) and typhus (1576-1581). The Spaniards, trying to
   make more of the diminishing population, merged the survivors from
   small towns into the bigger ones. This broke the power of the upper
   classes and dissolved the coherence of the indigenous society.
   Collected in larger towns, the people were more susceptible to
   epidemics due to the higher population density.

   The population before the time of the conquest is estimated at 15
   million; by 1550, the estimated population was 4 million and by 1581
   less than two million. Thus, the indigenous population of the Central
   Mexico Valley is estimated to have declined by more than 80% in the
   course of about 60 years.

   The "New Spain" of the 17th century was a depopulated country and many
   Mesoamerican cultures were wiped out. Because of the fall of their
   social structure, the population had to resort to the Spanish to
   maintain some order. In order to have an adequate supply of labor, the
   Spaniards began to import black slaves; most of them eventually merged
   with the local population.
   The Aztec Empire, on the eve of the Spanish Conquest.
   Enlarge
   The Aztec Empire, on the eve of the Spanish Conquest.

Government

   The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect
   means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but
   unlike most European empires, it was more a system of tribute than a
   single system of government. In the theoretical framework of imperial
   systems posited by Alexander J. Motyl the Aztec empire was an informal
   or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the
   conquered lands, it merely expected tributes to be paid. It was also a
   discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were
   connected, for example the southern peripheral zones of Soconosco was
   not in direct contact with the centre. The hegemonic nature of the
   Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were
   restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered and the
   Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute
   payments were made.

   Although the Aztec form of government is often referred to as an
   empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as
   city-states, known as altepetl in Nahuatl. These were small polities
   ruled by a king (tlatoani) from a legitimate dynasty. The Early Aztec
   period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl. Even after
   the empire was formed (1428) and began its program of expansion through
   conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at
   the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional
   political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's
   hegemonic form of control.

Tribute and trade

   Several pages from the Codex Mendoza list tributary towns along with
   the goods they supplied, which included not only luxuries such as
   feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads, but more practical goods
   such as cloth, firewood, and food. Tribute was usually paid twice or
   four times a year at differing times.

   Archaeological excavations in the Aztec-ruled provinces show that
   incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for
   provincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promoted commerce
   and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach
   the houses of both commoners and nobles. Trade partners included the
   enemy Tarascan, a source of bronze tools and jewelry. On the negative
   side, imperial tribute imposed a burden on commoner households, who had
   to increase their work to pay their share of tribute. Nobles, on the
   other hand, often made out well under imperial rule because of the
   indirect nature of imperial organization. The empire had to rely on
   local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in
   maintaining order and keeping the tribute flowing.

Roads

   The main contribution of the Aztec rule was a system of communications
   between the conquered cities. In Mesoamerica, without draft animals for
   transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed
   for travel on foot. Usually these roads were maintained through
   tribute, and travelers had places to rest and eat and even latrines to
   use at regular intervals, roughly every 10 or 15 km. Couriers (paynani)
   were constantly traveling along those ways, keeping the Aztecs informed
   of events, and helping to monitor the integrity of the roads. Due to
   the steady surveillance, even women could travel alone, a fact that
   amazed the Spaniards since that was not possible in Europe at that
   time.

   After the conquest those roads were no longer subject to maintenance
   and were tragically lost to the test of time.

The emperor

   The most important official of Tenochtitlan government is often
   referred to as the Aztec Emperor. The Nahuatl title, Huey Tlatoani
   (plural Huey Tlatoque), translates roughly as "Great Speaker" or
   "Revered Speaker". This office gradually took on more power with the
   rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Auitzotl, the title of Emperor had
   become a more appropriate analogy for this office, although as in the
   Holy Roman Empire, the title was not hereditary. The Emperor was still
   chosen by the elders --although they preferred to keep the title within
   one family, they also could remove it.

   The title has some resemblance to the Roman Emperor's title during the
   Principate (Princeps Senatus, or "First Citizen of the Senate"): both
   titles started as a "speaker of the house", but later coalesced more
   power into an "Emperor" type of office.

   It is doubted whether Hernán Cortés understood the nuances of this role
   and overestimated the influence of Moctezuma on his people, perhaps
   assuming he wielded power similar to Charles V, King of Spain.

   Each day, the Huey Tlatoani met with the elders and the priest of the
   different precincts of the city (calpōlli) to discuss the government.
   Originally the elders had to sanction every decision of the Huey
   Tlàtoani . When Moctezuma assumed the office, he replaced the
   counsellors, priests and administrators with his former students,
   thereby gaining more independence than former Tlatoanis. Yet his orders
   still could be questioned by the elders.

Mythology and religion

   The Coat of Arms of Mexico, from Aztec mythology
   Enlarge
   The Coat of Arms of Mexico, from Aztec mythology

   The Mexica made reference to at least two manifestations of the
   supernatural: tēōtl and tēixiptla. Tēōtl, which the Spaniards and
   European scholars routinely mistranslated as "god" or "demon", referred
   rather to an impersonal force that permeated the world. Tēixiptla, by
   contrast, denoted the physical representations ("idols", statues and
   figurines) of the tēōtl as well as the human cultic activity
   surrounding this physical representation. The Mexica "gods" themselves
   had no existence as distinct entities apart from these tēixiptla
   representations of tēōtl (Boone 1989).

   Veneration of Huitzilopochtli (literally, "hummingbird of the south"),
   the personification of the sun and of war, was central to the
   religious, social and political practices of the Mexicas.
   Huitzilopochtli attained this central position after the founding of
   Tenochtitlan and the formation of the Mexica city-state society in the
   14th century. Prior to this, Huitzilopochtli was associated primarily
   with hunting, presumably one of the important subsistence activities of
   the itinerant bands that would eventually become the Mexica.

   According to myth, Huitzilopochtli directed the wanderers to found a
   city on the site where they would see an eagle devouring a snake
   perched on a fruit-bearing nopal cactus. (It was said that
   Huitzilopochtli killed his nephew, Cópil, and threw his heart on the
   lake. Huitzilopochtli honoured Cópil by causing a cactus to grow over
   Cópil´s heart.) Legend has it that this is the site on which the
   Mexicas built their capital city of Tenochtitlan. This legendary vision
   is pictured on the Coat of Arms of Mexico.

   According to their own history, when the Mexicas arrived in the Anahuac
   valley ( Valley of Mexico) around Lake Texcoco, they were considered by
   the groups living there as uncivilized. The Mexicas borrowed much of
   their culture from the ancient Toltec whom they seem to have at least
   partially confused with the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan.
   To the Mexicas, the Toltecs were the originators of all culture;
   "Toltecayōtl" was a synonym for culture. Mexica legends identify the
   Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan,
   which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.

Human sacrifice

   Aztec human sacrifice, from Codex Magliabechiano
   Enlarge
   Aztec human sacrifice, from Codex Magliabechiano

   For most people today, and for the European Christians who first met
   the Aztecs, human sacrifice was and is the most striking feature of
   Aztec civilization. While human sacrifice was practiced throughout
   Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed,
   brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the
   reconsecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs
   reported that they sacrificed 84,400 prisoners over the course of four
   days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speaker himself.

   However, most experts consider these numbers to be vastly overstated.
   For example, the sheer logistics associated with sacrificing 84,000
   victims would be overwhelming. A similar consensus has developed on
   reports of cannibalism among the Aztecs: although it is possible that
   instances of ritual cannibalism were a feature of Aztec culture, it is
   doubtful that the practice was widespread.

   In the writings of Bernardino de Sahagún, Aztec "anonymous informants"
   defended the practice of human sacrifice by asserting that it was not
   very different from the European way of waging warfare: Europeans
   killed the warriors in battle, Aztecs killed the warriors after the
   battle.

   Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecs at the
   time of the Spanish Conquest, show that at least some of them
   considered it an honour to be sacrificed. In one legend, the warrior
   Tlahuicole was freed by the Aztecs but eventually returned of his own
   volition to die in ritual sacrifice. Tlaxcala also practiced the human
   sacrifice of captured Aztec warriors.

   In the period after the conquest, under the Mexican Inquisition
   "religious sacrifices" continued with the burnings at the stake of
   indigenous people who relapsed from the Christian religion.

Aztec society

Class structure

   The highest class were the pilli or nobility. Originally this was not
   hereditary, although the sons of pillis had access to better resources
   and education, so it was easier for them to become pillis. Later the
   class system took on hereditary aspects.

   The second class were the mācehualli, originally peasants. Eduardo
   Noguera estimates that in later stages only 20% of the population was
   dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80% of society
   were warriors, artisans and traders. Eventually, most of the
   mācehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an
   important source of income for the city.

   Slaves or tlacotin also constituted an important class. Aztecs could
   become slaves because of debts, as a criminal punishment or as war
   captives. Slavery was not hereditary: a slave's children were free. A
   slave could have possessions and even own other slaves. Slaves could
   buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they were able to
   show they had been mistreated or if they had children with or were
   married to their masters. Typically, upon the death of the master,
   slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed. The rest of
   the slaves were passed on as part of an inheritance.
   A painting from Codex Mendoza showing elder Aztecs being given
   intoxicants.
   Enlarge
   A painting from Codex Mendoza showing elder Aztecs being given
   intoxicants.

   Traveling merchants called pochteca were a small, but important class
   as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital
   information across the empire and beyond its borders. They were often
   employed as spies.

Diet

   The Aztec staple foods included maize, beans and squash to which were
   often added chilies and tomatoes, all prominent parts of the Mexican
   diet to this day. They harvested acocils, a small and abundant shrimp
   of Lake Texcoco, as well as spirulina algae, which was made into a sort
   of cake rich in flavonoids. Although the Aztec's diet was mostly
   vegetarian, the Aztecs consumed insects such as crickets (chapulines),
   maguey worm, ants, larvae, etc. Insects have a higher protein content
   than meat, and even now they are considered a delicacy in some parts of
   Mexico.

   Aztecs also used maguey extensively; from it they obtained food, sugar
   (aguamiel–honey water), fibers for ropes and clothing, and drink (
   pulque, a fermented beverage with an alcoholic content equivalent to
   beer). Getting drunk before the age of 60 however was forbidden. First
   offenses drew relatively light punishment but repeat offenses could be
   punished by death.

   Cocoa beans were used as money and also to make xocolatl, a frothy and
   bitter beverage, lacking the sweetness of modern chocolate drinks. The
   Aztecs also kept beehives and harvested honey.

   A study by Montellano shows a mean life expectancy of 37 (±3) years for
   the population of Mesoamerica. After the Spanish conquest, some foods
   were outlawed, particularly amaranth because of its central role in
   religious rituals. There was less diversity of food which led to
   chronic malnutrition in the general population.

Recreation

   As with all Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs played a variant of the
   Mesoamerican ballgame named tlachtli. The game was played with a ball
   of solid rubber, called an olli, whence derives the Spanish word for
   rubber, hule. The players hit the ball with their hips, knees, and
   elbows and had to pass the ball through a stone ring to automatically
   win.

   The Aztecs also enjoyed board games, like patolli and totoloque. Bernal
   Diaz records that Cortés and Moctezuma II played totoloque together.

Education

   Representation of Aztec education.
   Enlarge
   Representation of Aztec education.

   Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands
   of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calpōlli.
   Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings,
   called huēhuetlàtolli ("sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs'
   ideals. Judged by their language, most of the huēhuetlatolli seemed to
   have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most
   likely adopted from other Nahua cultures.

   At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The Mexica, one of the Aztec
   groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory
   education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or
   station. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for
   practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning
   in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The
   two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some
   experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture.

   Aztec teachers (tlatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education
   with the purpose of forming a stoical people.

   Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were
   not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in
   religion; there are paintings of women presiding over religious
   ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests.

Arts

   This ornament features a turquoise mosaic on a carved wooden base, with
   red and white shells used for the mouths. Probably worn across the
   chest, this ornament measures 20 cm by 43 cm (8 in by 17 in). It was
   likely created by Mixtec artisans from an Aztec tributary state.
   1400-1521, from the British Museum[1].
   Enlarge
   This ornament features a turquoise mosaic on a carved wooden base, with
   red and white shells used for the mouths. Probably worn across the
   chest, this ornament measures 20 cm by 43 cm (8 in by 17 in). It was
   likely created by Mixtec artisans from an Aztec tributary state.
   1400-1521, from the British Museum .

   Song and poetry were highly regarded; there were presentations and
   poetry contests at most of the Aztec festivals. Also there was a kind
   of dramatic presentation that included players, musicians and acrobats.

   Poetry was the only occupation worthy of an Aztec warrior in times of
   peace. A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been
   collected during the era of the conquest. In some cases poetry is
   attributed to individual authors, such as Netzahualcoyotl, tlatoani of
   Texcoco, and Cuacuatzin, Lord of Tepechpan, but whether these
   attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of discussion.
   Miguel León-Portilla, a well respected Aztec scholar of Mexico, has
   stated that it is in this poetry where we can find the real thought of
   the Aztecs, independent of "official" Aztec ideology.

   It is also important to note that the Spanish classified many aspects
   of the Aztec/Nahuatl culture according to the lexicon and
   organizational categories with which they would distinguish in Europe.
   In the same way that the second letter of Cortez made a mention of
   "mesquitas", or in english, "mosques", when trying to convey his
   impression of aztec arquitecture, early colonists and missionaries
   divided the principal bodies of nahuatl literature as "poetry" and
   "prose". "Poetry" was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning "the
   flower and the song" and was divided into different genres. Yaocuicatl
   was devoted to war and the god(s) of war, Teocuicatl to the gods and
   creation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to
   flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly
   metaphorical nature of a poetry that often utilized duality to convey
   multiple layers of meaning). "Prose" was tlahtolli, also with its
   different categories and divisions (Garganigo et. al).
   Turquoise mask. Mixtec-Aztec. 1400-1521.
   Enlarge
   Turquoise mask. Mixtec-Aztec. 1400-1521.

   The most important collection of these poems is Romances de los señores
   de la Nueva España, collected (Tezcoco 1582), probably by Juan Bautista
   de Pomar. Bautista de Pomar was the great-grandson of Netzahualcoyotl.
   He spoke Nahuatl, but was raised a Christian and wrote in Latin
   characters. (See also: " Is It You?", a short poem attributed to
   Netzahualcoyotl, and " Lament on the Fall of Tenochtitlan", a short
   poem contained within the " Unos Anales Históricos de la Nación
   Mexicana" manuscript.)

   The Aztec people also enjoyed a type of dramatic presentation, a kind
   of theatre. Some plays were comical with music and acrobats, others
   were staged dramas of their gods. After the conquest, the first
   Christian churches had open chapels reserved for these kinds of
   representations. Plays in Nahuatl, written by converted Indians, were
   an important instrument for the conversion to Christianity, and are
   still found today in the form of traditional pastorelas, which are
   played during Christmas to show the Adoration of Baby Jesus, and other
   Biblical passages.

Relationship to other Mesoamerican cultures

   Aztecs admired Mixtec craftsmanship so much that they imported artisans
   to Tenochtitlan and requested work to be done in certain Mixtec styles.
   The Aztecs also admired the Mixtec codices, so some of them were made
   to order by Mixteca for the Aztecs. In the later days, high society
   Aztec women started to wear Mixtec clothing, specifically the
   quexquemetl. It was worn over their traditional "huipil", and much
   coveted by the women who could not afford such imported goods.

   The situation was analogous in many ways to the Phoenician culture
   which imported and duplicated art from other cultures that they
   encountered. For this reason, archeologists often have trouble
   identifying which artifacts are genuinely Phoenician and which are
   imported or copied from other cultures.

   Archaeologists usually do not have a problem differentiating between
   Mixtec and Aztec artifacts. However, some products were made by the
   Mixtec for "export" and that makes classification more problematic. In
   addition, the production of craft was an important part of the Mexica
   economy, and they also made pieces for "export".

City-building and architecture

   Tenochtitlán, looking east. From the mural painting at the National
   Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. Painted in 1930 by Dr. Atl.
   Enlarge
   Tenochtitlán, looking east. From the mural painting at the National
   Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. Painted in 1930 by Dr. Atl.

   The capital city of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, now the site of
   modern-day Mexico City. Built on a series of islets in Lake Texcoco,
   the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into
   four city sections called campans. The city was interlaced with canals
   which were useful for transportation.

   Tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered on the
   ritual precinct, where the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan rose 60 m
   above the city. Houses were made of wood and loam, roofs were made of
   reed, although pyramids, temples and palaces were generally made of
   stone.

   Around the island, chinampa beds were used to grow foodstuffs as well
   as, over time, to increase the size of the island. Chinampas, misnamed
   "floating gardens", were long raised plant beds set upon the shallow
   lake bottom. They were a very efficient agricultural system and could
   provide up to seven crops a year. On the basis of current chinampa
   yields, it has been estimated that 1 hectare of chinampa would feed 20
   individuals and 9,000 hectares of chinampas could feed 180,000.

   Anthropologist Eduardo Noguera estimates the population at 200,000
   based in the house count and merging the population of Tlatelolco (once
   an independent city, but later became a suburb of Tenochtitlan). If one
   includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding Lake Texcoco,
   estimates range from 300,000 to 700,000 inhabitants.

Legacy

   Most modern Mexicans are of mixed Spanish and indigenous ancestry,
   descendants of the Mexicas or of the many other indigenous peoples of
   the Aztec Empire and Mesoamerica.

   Nahuatl is spoken by Mexican Indians (many of whom call their language
   "Mexicano"), mostly in mountainous areas in the states surrounding
   Mexico City. Moreover, Nahuatl survives among the entire Mexican
   population, comprising a significant part of the Mexican Spanish
   dialect, some of which has even come into American English (e.g. the
   word Coyote, who comes from the Nahuatl word 'Coyotl').

   Mexico City was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, making it one of
   the oldest living cities of America. Many of its districts and natural
   landmarks retain their original Nahuatl names. Many other cities and
   towns in Central Mexico were also originally Mexica towns, also often
   retaining their original Nahuatl names, or combining them with Spanish.

   Mexican cuisine continues to be based on and flavored by agricultural
   products contributed by the Mexicas/Aztecs and Mesoamerica, most of
   which retain some form of their original Nahuatl names. The cuisine has
   also become a popular part of the cuisine of the United States and
   other countries around the world, typically altered to suit various
   national tastes.

   The modern Mexican flag bears the emblem of the Mexica's migration
   legend.

   Mexico's premier religious icon, the Virgin of Guadalupe has certain
   similarities to the Mexica earth mother goddess Tonantzin.

   For the 1986 FIFA World Cup Adidas designed the official match ball
   showing in its "triades" aztecs architect and mural designs and called
   "Azteca Mexico" .

Views of the Aztec culture

   Laurette Séjourné, a French anthropologist, wrote about Aztec and
   Mesoamerican spirituality. Her depiction of the Aztecs as a spiritual
   people was so compelling that new religions have been formed based on
   her writings. Some parts of her work have been adopted by esoteric
   groups, searching for occult teachings of the pre-Columbian religions.
   Séjourné never endorsed any of these groups.

   Miguel León-Portilla also idealizes the Aztec culture, especially in
   his early writings.

   Writings by Sejourné and Portilla have been transformed by others such
   as Antonio Velazco into a religious movement. Antonio Velasco Piña has
   written three books, Tlacaelel, El Azteca entre los Aztecas, La mujer
   dormida debe dara a luz, and Regina. When mixed with the currents of
   Neopaganism, these books resulted in a new religious movement called
   "Mexicanista". This movement called for a return to the spirituality of
   the Aztecs. It is argued that, with this return, Mexico will become the
   next centre of power. This religious movement mixes Mesaomerican cults
   with Hindu esoterism. The Mexicanista movement reached the peak of its
   popularity in the 1990s.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
