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Architecture

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Architecture

   The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece
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   The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece

   Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek,
   αρχιτεκτων, "a master builder", from αρχι- "chief, leader" and τεκτων,
   "builder, carpenter")^ is the art and science of designing buildings
   and structures.

   A wider definition would include within its scope also the design of
   the total built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning,
   urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of creating
   furniture. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility
   and cost for the builder, as well as function and aesthetics for the
   user.

   Planned architecture often manipulates space, volume, texture, light,
   shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics.
   This distinguishes it from applied science or engineering, which
   usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of
   the design of constructions or structures.

   In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an
   architect range from the more complex, such as for a hospital or a
   stadium, to the apparently simpler, such as planning residential
   houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and
   political symbols, and/or works of art. The role of the architect,
   though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less
   than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built
   environments in which people live.
   Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728
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   Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728

Scope

   According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject,
   Vitruvius' De architectura, good buildings satisfy three core
   principles: Firmness, Commodity, and Delight^ ; architecture can be
   said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with
   none overpowering the others. A modern-day definition sees architecture
   as addressing aesthetic, structural, and functional considerations.
   However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing
   all criteria, including aesthetic, psychological, and cultural ones.

   Most modern-day definitions of "good buildings" recognize that because
   architecture does not exist in a vacuum architectural form cannot be
   merely a compilation of historical precedent, functional necessities,
   and socially aware concerns, but must also be a transcendent synthesis
   of all of the former and a creation of worth in and of itself. As
   Nunzia Rodanini stated^ , “Through its aesthetic dimension architecture
   goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other
   human sciences…Through its own particular way of expressing values,
   architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming
   that, in and of itself, it will promote social development…To restrict
   the meaning of (architecture) formalism to art for art’s sake is not
   only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or
   originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality”.

   Architecture is an interdisciplinary field, drawing upon mathematics,
   science, art, technology, social sciences, politics, history, and
   philosophy. Vitruvius states: "Architecture is a science, arising out
   of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by
   the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the
   result of other arts." He adds that an architect should be well versed
   in fields such as music and astronomy. Philosophy is a particular
   favourite; in fact the approach of an architect to their subject is
   often called their philosophy. Rationalism, empiricism, structuralism,
   poststructuralism, and phenomenology are some topics from philosophy
   that have influenced architecture.

   In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating an
   actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object
   or system. The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of
   abstract things such as music or mathematics, the apparent architecture
   of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of
   biological cells, or explicitly planned architectures of human-made
   things such as software, computers, enterprises, and databases, in
   addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a
   subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the
   case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components
   of some kind of structure or system, which preserves the relationships
   among the elements or components.

   Integrally speaking, architecture is a culmination and synthesis of all
   art forms, uniting sculpture, painting, and engraving as well as drama,
   music and dance, working in cooperation through the common ideal of
   awakening us to our individual freedom and task in life. The
   architecture literally defines a coherent and integrated community, and
   how this in turn affects social unity and harmony.

Architecture and buildings

   Transamerica Pyramid, San Francisco
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   Transamerica Pyramid, San Francisco
   Saint Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, the most famous representation of
   Eastern Europe's Domes.
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   Saint Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, the most famous representation of
   Eastern Europe's Domes.

   The difference between architecture and building is a subject that has
   engaged the attention of many. According to Nikolaus Pevsner, European
   historian of the early twentieth century, "A bicycle shed is a
   building, Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture." This
   distinction, however, is not a clear one, and contemporary scholarship
   is showing that all buildings, cathedrals and bicycle sheds alike, are
   part of a single continuum that characterizes the built world.

   Architecture is also the art of designing the built environment.
   Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both
   functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and
   roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings
   with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables,
   entrances, fenestrations and textures may be used to soften or enhance
   portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and
   block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with
   colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative
   lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and bicycle lanes may enhance a
   site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists.

Architectural history

   Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter,
   security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and
   attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture . As humans
   progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions
   and practices, architecture evolved into a craft. Here there is first a
   process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a
   successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to
   be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings
   make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
   The Colosseum, Rome, Italy is an example of Roman architecture.
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   The Colosseum, Rome, Italy is an example of Roman architecture.

   Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus of
   production began to occur, rural societies transformed into urban ones
   and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilizations such as the
   Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the
   constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in
   other ancient cultures such as Iran architecture and urban planning was
   used to exemplify the power of the state.
   Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, Pakistan
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   Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, Pakistan

   However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations
   such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from more civic ideas and new
   building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on
   architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in
   important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of
   canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient China and
   Vaastu Shastra in ancient India. In Europe in the Classical and
   Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual
   architects who remained anonymous. Guilds were formed by craftsmen to
   organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their
   types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges
   began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals,
   and recreational facilities emerged.
   Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, India
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   Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, India

   Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the
   seventh century CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that
   are, or were, Islamic - from Morocco and Spain to Turkey, Iran and
   Pakistan. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a
   minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas,
   caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region.

   With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity
   rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and
   achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific
   architects - Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci - and the
   cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line
   between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related
   vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design
   a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within
   the scope of the generalist.

   With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as
   engineering and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect
   began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore
   cornered for himself another playing field - that of aesthetics. There
   was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with
   wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities
   derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century Ecole
   des Beaux Arts in France, the training was toward producing quick
   sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on
   context..
   The palace of Versailles in France is largest palace in europe and
   served as the model for european royal residences for over 100 years.
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   The palace of Versailles in France is largest palace in europe and
   served as the model for european royal residences for over 100 years.

   Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass
   consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the
   middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of
   expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
   Bauhaus building, Dessau, Germany
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   Bauhaus building, Dessau, Germany

   The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the
   twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in
   architecture served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among
   these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better
   quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial
   design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school,
   founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at
   architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.

   When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde
   movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.
   Modernist architects sought to reduce buildings to a pure form,
   removing historical references in favour of purely functional
   structures. The columns, arches, and gargoyles of Classical
   architecture were dubbed unnecessary. Buildings that flaunted their
   construction, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of
   hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their
   own right. Architects such as Mies van der Rohe worked to reject
   virtually all that had come before, trading handcrafted details and
   sentimental historic forms for a machine-driven architectural geometry
   made possible by the Industrial Revolution.

   Many people saw Modernism as dull or even ugly. As the founders of the
   International Style lost influence, Postmodernism developed as a
   reaction against the purity of Modernism. Robert Venturi's contention
   that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally
   designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a
   "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied
   together) gives an idea of this approach.

   Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded
   by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt
   that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit
   by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people
   and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design
   Methodology Movement involving people such as Chris Jones, Christopher
   Alexander started searching for more people-orientated designs.
   Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and
   social sciences were done and started informing the design process.

   As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of
   buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services,
   architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever.
   Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an
   architect being one among the many^ , sometimes the leader. This is the
   state of the profession today. However, individuality is still
   cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural
   symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new
   experiments in style: today one style, tomorrow maybe something else.
   Frank Lloyd Wright's Famous "Fallingwater"
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   Frank Lloyd Wright's Famous " Fallingwater"
   Modern architecture in Warsaw
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   Modern architecture in Warsaw

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
