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Ancient Rome

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology

   The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome
   developed.
   Enlarge
   The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome
   developed.

   Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a humble city-state
   founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive
   empire straddling the Mediterranean. In its twelve-century existence,
   the Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic
   republic to a vast empire. It came to dominate Western Europe and the
   entire area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through conquest and
   assimilation. Nonetheless, a number of factors led to the eventual
   decline of the Roman Empire. The western half of the empire, including
   Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms
   in the 5th century; the eastern empire, governed from Constantinople,
   is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after 476, the
   traditional date for the "fall of Rome" and for the subsequent onset of
   the Early Middle Ages, also known as the Dark Ages.
   Area under Roman control ██ Roman Republic ██ Roman Empire ██ Western
   Empire ██ Eastern Empire Enlarge
   Area under Roman control ██  Roman Republic ██ Roman Empire ██ Western
   Empire ██ Eastern Empire

   Roman civilization is often grouped into " classical antiquity" with
   ancient Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of
   ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of
   law, war, art, literature, architecture, technology and language in the
   Western world, and its history continues to have a major influence on
   the world today. Due to the momentous advances it achieved, as well as
   the tremendous legacy it left, Rome is widely viewed as one of the
   greatest civilizations in history.

History

Legend

   According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus,
   who were raised by a she-wolf.
   Enlarge
   According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus,
   who were raised by a she-wolf.

   In Roman legend, Rome was founded on April 21, 753 BC by twin
   descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. Romulus
   killed Remus in a quarrel over which of them was to reign and became
   the first of seven Kings of Rome, as well as the source of the city's
   name.^ As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins
   invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens,
   leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.

Monarchy

   The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river
   Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to archaeological
   evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the 9th
   century BC by members of two central Italian tribes, the Latins and the
   Sabines, on the Palatine, Capitoline, and Quirinal Hills. The
   Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to
   have established political control in the region by the late 7th
   century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The
   Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late 6th century BC,
   and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented
   their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints
   on the ability of rulers to exercise power.

Republic

   Marius, a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the
   Roman military.
   Marius, a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the
   Roman military.

   The Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, according to later
   writers such as Livy, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin
   the Proud, was deposed, and a system based on annually-elected
   magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. The
   most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised
   executive authority in the form of imperium, or military command. The
   consuls had to contend with the Senate, which was initially an advisory
   council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and
   power over time. Other magistracies in the Republic include praetors,
   aediles, and quaestors. The magistracies were originally restricted to
   patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians.^
   Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata and the
   comitia tributa.

   The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian
   peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony
   in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of
   Pyrrhus of Epirus in 282 BC, but this effort failed as well. The Romans
   secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas,
   establishing stable control over the region.^ In the second half of the
   3rd century BC, Rome clashed with Carthage in the first of three Punic
   Wars. These wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests, of Sicily
   and Hispania, and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.
   After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century
   BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.^

   But foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at
   the provinces' expense, but soldiers, who were mostly small farmers,
   were away from home longer and could not maintain their land, and the
   increased reliance on foreign slaves reduced the availability of paid
   work. Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax
   farming created new economic opportunity and wealth among the lower
   classes, forming a new class of merchants, the equestrians. Though the
   equestrians had vast financial resources at their disposal, they still
   found themselves counted among the lower-class plebeians, and therefore
   severely restricted in terms of political power. The Senate squabbled
   perpetually, repeatedly blocking important land reforms and refusing to
   give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. Violent gangs
   of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the
   electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late
   2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who
   attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the
   major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were
   killed, but the Senate passed some of their reforms in an attempt to
   placate the growing unrest of the plebeian and equestrian classes. The
   denial of Roman citizenship to allied Italian cities led to the Social
   War of 91– 88 BC. The military reforms of Marius resulted in soldiers
   often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a
   powerful general could hold the city and Senate ransom. This culminated
   in Sulla's brutal dictatorship of 81- 79 BC. ^

   In the mid-1st century BC, three men, Julius Caesar, Pompey, and
   Crassus, formed a secret pact—the First Triumvirate—to control the
   Republic. After Caesar's conquest of Gaul, a stand-off between Caesar
   and the Senate led to civil war, with Pompey leading the Senate's
   forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made dictator for life.^ In
   44 BC, Caesar was assassinated by senators fearing that Caesar sought
   to restore the monarchy, and a Second Triumvirate, consisting of
   Caesar's designated heir, Augustus, and his former supporters, Mark
   Antony and Lepidus, took power. However, this alliance soon descended
   into a struggle for dominance. Lepidus was exiled, and when Augustus
   defeated Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31
   BC, he became the undisputed ruler of Rome.^

Empire

   The Roman Empire under Trajan (98 - 117).
   Enlarge
   The Roman Empire under Trajan (98 - 117).
   The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in year 116.
   Enlarge
   The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in year 116.

   With his enemies defeated, Augustus assumed almost absolute power,
   retaining only a pretense of the Republican form of government. His
   designated successor, Tiberius, took power without bloodshed,
   establishing the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which lasted until the death
   of Nero in 68. The territorial expansion of what was now the Roman
   Empire continued, and the state remained secure, despite a series of
   emperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt. Their rule was followed
   by the Flavian dynasty.^ During the reign of the " Five Good Emperors"
   ( 96– 180), the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural
   zenith. The state was secure from both internal and external threats,
   and the Empire prospered during the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). With
   the conquest of Dacia during the reign of Trajan, the Empire reached
   the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned 2.5
   million square miles (6.5 million km²).^

   The period between 180 and 235 was dominated by the Severan dynasty,
   and saw several incompetent rulers, such as Elagabalus. This and the
   increasing influence of the army on imperial succession led to a long
   period of imperial collapse known as the Crisis of the Third Century.
   The crisis was ended by the more competent rule of Diocletian, who in
   293 divided the Empire into an eastern and western half ruled by a
   tetrarchy of two co-emperors and their two junior colleagues. The
   various co-rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for
   more than half a century. In 330, Emperor Constantine I firmly
   established the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in Byzantium, and
   the Empire was permanently divided into the Eastern Roman Empire (later
   known as the Byzantine Empire) and the Western Roman Empire in 364.

   The Western Empire was constantly harassed by barbarian invasions, and
   the gradual decline of the Roman Empire continued over the centuries.
   Rome was eventually 'taken hostage' by barbarians, after they had been
   promised land. Their initial plan was to stop anything and anyone
   entering or leaving the city until they were given land to settle in.
   However, after several betrayals, they grew angry and took the city for
   their own. In 410, the city of Rome itself was sacked, and on September
   4, 476, the Germanic chief Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor in the
   west, Romulus Augustus, to abdicate. Having lasted for approximately
   1200 years, the rule of Rome in the West came to an end.

Society

   Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven
   hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the
   Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. It had fountains with
   fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts,
   theaters, gymnasiums, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops,
   marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the
   control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from very
   modest houses to country villas. In the capital city of Rome, there
   were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the
   word "palace" is derived. The low and middle classes lived in the city
   centre, packed into apartments, which were almost like modern ghettos.

   The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban centre of its time,
   with a population well in excess of one million people (about the size
   of London in the early 19th century, when London was the largest city
   in the world), with some high-end estimates of 3.5 million and low-end
   estimates of 450,000. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a
   din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had
   once proposed a ban on chariot traffic at night. Historical estimates
   indicate that around 20 percent of population under the jurisdiction of
   the ancient Rome (32% in Roman Italy) lived in innumerable urban
   centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military
   settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial
   standards. Most of these centers had a forum and temples and same type
   of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome.

Government

   Bust of Julius Caesar, whose rise to power and assassination set the
   stage for Augustus to establish himself as the first Princeps.
   Enlarge
   Bust of Julius Caesar, whose rise to power and assassination set the
   stage for Augustus to establish himself as the first Princeps.

   Initially, Rome was ruled by elected kings. The exact nature of the
   king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may
   also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people.
   At least in military matters, the king's authority ( Imperium) was
   likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In
   addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative
   assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King;
   the Comitia Curiata, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by
   the King; and the Comitia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestly
   college which could assemble the people in order to bear witness to
   certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday
   schedule for the next month.

   The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual
   mixture of democracy and oligarchy. Roman laws traditionally could only
   be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly ( Comitia Tributa).
   Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by
   the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic
   institution, which acted as an advisory body.^ In the Republic, the
   Senate held great authority (auctoritas), but no actual legislative
   power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the
   Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to
   accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New
   Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by
   Censors (Censura), who could also remove a Senator from his office if
   he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or,
   as under Cato the Elder, embracing one's wife in public. Later, under
   the reforms of the dictator Sulla, Quaestors were made automatic
   members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive.

   The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the
   practice of tax farming. Government positions such as quaestor, aedile,
   or praefect were funded from the office-holder's private finances. In
   order to prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new
   magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a
   colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority
   was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be
   appointed.^ Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was
   revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved
   inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome,
   contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire.

   In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government
   was maintained. The Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a ' princeps',
   or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all
   legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the
   rule of the emperors became increasingly autocratic over time, and the
   Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The
   Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the
   Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from
   the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the
   state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally-planned budget.
   Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline
   of the Roman Empire.

   The territory of the Empire was divided into provinces. The number of
   provinces increased with time, both as new territories were conquered
   and as provinces were divided into smaller units to discourage
   rebellions by powerful local rulers.^ Upon the rise of Augustus and the
   Principate, the provinces were divided into imperial and senatorial
   provinces, depending on which institution had the right to select the
   governor. During the Tetrarchy, the provinces of the empire were
   divided into 12 dioceses, each headed by a praetor vicarius. The
   civilian and military authority were separated, with civilian matters
   still administered by the governor, but with military command
   transferred to a dux.

Law

   The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans
   may be traced to the law of the twelve tables (from 449 BC) to the
   codification of Emperor Justinian I (around 530). Roman law as
   preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and
   formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western
   Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied
   throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.

   The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the
   Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Ius Civile, Ius
   Gentium, and Ius Naturale. The Ius Civile ("Citizen law") was the body
   of common laws that applied to Roman citizens. The Praetores Urbani
   (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over
   cases involving citizens. The Ius Gentium ("Law of nations") was the
   body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with
   Roman citizens. The Praetores Peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were
   the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and
   foreigners. Ius Naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that
   were considered common to all beings.

Economy

   A Roman denarius, a standardized silver coin.
   A Roman denarius, a standardized silver coin.

   Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and
   human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on
   agriculture and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian
   landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had
   supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported
   grain price. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North
   Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and
   wine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced,
   but farm productivity was overall low, around 1 ton per hectare.

   Industrial and manufacturing activities were smaller. The largest such
   activity were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic
   construction materials for the buildings of that period. In
   manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and
   generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at
   most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds
   of workers.

   Some economic historians (like Peter Temin) argue that the economy of
   the Early Roman Empire was a market economy and one of the most
   advanced agricultural economies to have existed (in terms of
   productivity, urbanization and development of capital markets),
   comparable to the most advanced economies of the world before the
   industrial revolution, the economies of 18th-century England and
   17th-century Netherlands. There were markets for every type of good,
   for land, for cargo ships; there was even an insurance market.

   The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and
   paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves
   increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy
   was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled
   work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman
   Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in
   the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves
   increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership.

   Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax
   collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass,
   bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire
   and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd
   century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps,
   across central Italy. The original copper coins ( as) had a face value
   of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's
   utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value
   as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal
   value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic.

   Horses were too expensive, and other pack animals too slow, for mass
   trade on the Roman roads, which connected military posts rather than
   markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was
   little transport of commodities between Roman regions until the rise of
   Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a
   trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to
   Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean.^
   Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the
   volume for such trips was much larger.

Class structure

   A Roman clad in a toga, the distinctive garb of ancient Rome.
   A Roman clad in a toga, the distinctive garb of ancient Rome.

   Roman society was strictly hierarchical, with slaves (servī) at the
   bottom, freedmen (liberī) above them, and free-born citizens (civēs) at
   the top. Free citizens were themselves also divided by class. The
   broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could
   trace their ancestry to one of the 100 Patriarchs at the founding of
   the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important
   in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and
   entered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times.
   Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor
   was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family to hold
   the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo
   ("new man") and ennobled his descendents. Patrician ancestry, however,
   still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices
   remained restricted to patricians.

   A class division originally based on military service became more
   important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by
   the Censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial
   class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the
   equestrians (equites, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those
   who could afford a warhorse, who formed a powerful mercantile class.
   Several further classes, originally based on what military equipment
   their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citizens who
   had no property at all, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius
   they were ineligible for military service and are often described as
   being just barely above freed slaves in terms of wealth and prestige.

   Voting power in the Republic was dependent on class. Citizens were
   enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had
   fewer members than the poorer ones, all the proletarii being enrolled
   in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order and stopped as soon
   as a majority of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes
   were often unable even to cast their votes.

   Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Right, an intermediary
   level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave
   their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading
   magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying
   degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those con
   suffrage ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part
   in the comitia tributa) and sans suffrage (without vote; unable to take
   part in Roman politics). Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full
   citizenship after the Social War of 91– 88 BC, and full Roman
   citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by
   Caracalla in 212. Women shared some basic rights with their male
   counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not
   allowed to vote or participate in politics.

Family

   The basic units of Roman society were households and families.
   Households included the head of the household, paterfamilias (father of
   the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper
   classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The head
   of the household had great power (patria potestas, "father's power")
   over those living with him: He could force marriage and divorce, sell
   his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own,
   and possibly even had the right to kill family members.

   Patria potestas even extended over adult sons with their own
   households: A man was not considered a paterfamilias while his own
   father lived. A daughter, when she married, usually fell under the
   authority of the paterfamilias of her husband's household, although
   this was not always the case, as she could choose to continue
   recognizing her father's family as her true family. However, as Romans
   reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had would
   belong to her husband's family.

   Groups of related households formed a family ( gens). Families were
   based on blood ties (or adoption), but were also political and economic
   alliances. Especially during the Roman Republic, some powerful
   families, or Gentes Maiores, came to dominate political life.

   Ancient Roman marriage was often regarded more as a financial and
   political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the
   upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their
   daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The
   husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls
   married very young, there is evidence that lower class women often
   married in their late teens or early twenties.

Education

   In the early Republic, boys were taught to read and write by their
   father, or by educated slaves, usually of Greek origin; the ultimate
   aim of Roman education was to produce men who could speak effectively.
   Village schools were also established. Later, around 200 BC, boys and
   some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a school outside the home
   called a ludus. Basic Roman education included reading, writing, and
   counting, and their materials consisted of scrolls and books. At the
   age of 13, students learned about Greek and Roman literature. At the
   age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school. Poorer people were
   usually taught by their parents as school was not free. Pupils went to
   school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There was
   also a summer holiday.

Demographic outlines in the 6th century BC—1st century AD (the city of Rome
area)

   Census Population Economic crises    Wars    Epidemics
   508 BC 130,000
                     505-504 BC
   503 BC 120,000
                     499 or 496 BC
   498 BC 150,700
   493 BC 110,000
                     492-491 BC
                     486 BC
   474 BC 103,000    474 BC          474 BC
   465 BC 104,714
   459 BC 117,319
                     456 BC
                     454 BC                     454 BC
                     440-439 BC
                     433 BC                     433 BC
                     428 BC                     428 BC
                     412 BC                     412 BC
                                     400 BC
                                     396 BC
   392 BC 152,573    392 BC                     392 BC
   390 BC            390 BC
                                     386 BC
                     383 BC                     383 BC
                                     343-341 BC
   340 BC 165,000                    340-338 BC
                                     326-304 BC
   323 BC 150,000
                     299 BC
                                     298-290 BC
   294 BC 262,321
                                                293/292 BC
   289 BC 27,200
                                     281 BC
   280 BC 287,222                    280-275 BC
   276 BC 271,224                               276 BC?
   265 BC 292,234
                                     264-241 BC
   252 BC 297,797
                     250 BCE         250 BC
   247 BC 241,712
   241 BC 260,000
   234 BC 270,713
                     216 BC          216 BC
                     211-210 BC      211-210 BC
   209 BC 137,108
   204 BC 214,000    204 BC
                     203 BC
                     201 BC
                     200 BC          200-195 BC
   194 BC 143,704
                                     192-188 BC
   189 BC 258,318
                                                187 BC
                                                182-180 BC
   179 BC 258,318
                                                176-175 BC
   174 BC 269,015
                                     171-167 BC
   169 BC 312,805
                                                165 BC
   164 BC 337,022
   159 BC 328,316
   154 BC 324,000
                     153 BC
   147 BC 322,000
   142 BC 322,442                               142 BC
                     138 BC
   136 BC 317,933
   131 BC 318,823
   125 BC 394,736
                     123 BC
   115 BC 394,336
                     104 BC
                                                87 BC
   86 BC  463,000
                                     75 BC
   70 BC  910,000
                     67 BC
                     65 BC
                                     54 BC
                                     49-46 BC
                     43 BC
   28 BC  4,063,000
                     23-22           23-22
   8 BC   4,233,000
                                     5-6
                                     10
   14 AD  4,937,000

Culture

Language

   The Duenos inscription, a Latin text from circa the 6th century BC, is
   the earliest known example of Roman writing.
   Enlarge
   The Duenos inscription, a Latin text from circa the 6th century BC, is
   the earliest known example of Roman writing.

   The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the
   grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through
   a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet, the Latin
   alphabet, is ultimately based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving
   Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an
   artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the
   1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was
   Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in
   grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.

   While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire,
   Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as
   most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the
   eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine
   Empire, Greek eventually supplanted Latin as both the written and
   spoken language. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin
   throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized
   in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct
   Romance languages.

   Although Latin is an extinct language with very few remaining fluent
   speakers, it remains in use in many ways, such as through
   Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Catholic
   Church and the official language of the Vatican City. Additionally,
   even after fading from common usage Latin maintained a role as western
   Europe's lingua franca, an international language of academia and
   diplomacy. Although eventually supplanted in this respect by French in
   the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy
   use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology—it has been
   estimated that 80% of all scholarly English words derive directly or
   indirectly from Latin.

Religion

   Archaic Roman mythology, at least concerning the gods, was made up not
   of narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and
   humans. Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but
   were vaguely-defined sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed
   that every person, place or thing had its own genius, or divine soul.
   During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organized under a strict
   system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank.
   The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its
   chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the state religion.
   Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were
   trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious
   responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman empire, emperors
   were held to be gods, and the formalized imperial cult became
   increasingly prominent.

   As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became
   increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived to
   be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and
   Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and
   mythologies of these Greek gods. The transferral of anthropomorphic
   qualities to Roman Gods, and the prevalence of Greek philosophy among
   well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old
   rites, and in the 1st century BC, the religious importance of the old
   priestly offices declined rapidly, though their civic importance and
   political influence remained. Roman religion in the empire tended more
   and more to centre on the imperial house, and several emperors were
   deified after their deaths.

   Under the empire, numerous foreign cults grew popular, such as the
   worship of the Egyptian Isis and the Persian Mithras. Beginning in the
   2nd century, Christianity began to spread in the Empire, despite
   initial persecution. It became an officially supported religion in the
   Roman state under Constantine I, and all religions except Christianity
   were prohibited in 391 by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.

Art, Music and literature

   Roman sculpture was at its most original in the production of strongly
   characterized portraits such as this bust of Cato the Elder.
   Enlarge
   Roman sculpture was at its most original in the production of strongly
   characterized portraits such as this bust of Cato the Elder.

   Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly
   in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art
   taken as treasure from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were
   decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains
   at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman
   world. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and
   classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and
   idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and
   bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling.
   Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting
   Roman victories.

   Latin literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by
   Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical
   epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic
   expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and
   tragedy.

Games and activities

   The ancient city of Rome had a place called Campus, a sort of drill
   ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the Tiber river.
   Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground, which even
   Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Imitating the
   Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban
   centers and military settlements.

   In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included
   jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming
   were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastimes
   also included fishing and hunting. Women did not participate in these
   activities. Ball-playing was a popular sport, and ancient Romans had
   several ball games, which included Handball (Expulsim Ludere), field
   hockey, catch, and some form of football.

   A popular form of entertainment were gladiatorial combats. Gladiators
   fought either to the death, or to "first blood" with a variety of
   weapons and in a variety of different scenarios. These fights achieved
   their height of popularity under the emperor Claudius, who placed the
   final outcome of the combat firmly in the hands of the emperor with a
   hand gesture. Contrary to popular representations in film the gesture
   for death was not "thumbs down". The emperor would signify "death" by
   holding a raised fist to the winning combatant and then extending his
   thumb laterally. "Mercy" was indicated by a raised fist with no
   extended thumb. Animal shows were also popular with the Romans, where
   foreign animals were either displayed for the public or combined with
   gladiatorial combat. A prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, was
   thrown into the arena and an animal was released. Gladiators fought in
   games held only ten days per year, and could earn the ancient Roman
   equivalent of 500,000 EUR for competing in a single fight to the death.

   The Circus Maximus, another popular site in Rome, was primarily used
   for horse and chariot racing, although it was also used in many other
   events. It could hold up to 385,000 people; people all over Rome would
   visit it. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and one with seven
   dolphins, laid in the middle of the track of Circus Maximus, and
   whenever the racers made a lap, one of each would be removed. This was
   done to keep the spectators and the racers informed on the race
   statistics. Other than sports, the Circus Maximus was also an area of
   marketing and gambling. Higher authorities, like the emperor, also
   attended games in the Circus Maximus, as it was rude not to. They,
   knights, and many other people who were involved with the race sat in
   reserved seats located above everyone else. It was also found rude for
   emperors to root for a team. The Circus Maximus was created in 600 BC
   and hosted the last horse racing game in 549, lasting for over a
   millennium.

Technology

   The Roman abacus, the first portable calculating device, helped speed
   up the use of Roman arithmetic.
   The Roman abacus, the first portable calculating device, helped speed
   up the use of Roman arithmetic.

   Ancient Rome boasted the most impressive technological feats of its
   day, utilizing many advancements that would be lost in the Middle Ages
   and not be rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. However,
   though adept at adopting and synthesizing other cultures' technologies,
   the Roman civilization was not especially innovative or progressive.
   Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek
   designs. The development of new ideas was rarely encouraged; Roman
   society considered the articulate soldier who could wisely govern a
   large household the ideal, and Roman law made no provisions for
   intellectual property or the promotion of invention. The concept of
   "scientists" and "engineers" did not yet exist, and advancements were
   often divided based on craft, with groups of artisans jealously
   guarding new technologies as trade secrets. Nevertheless, a number of
   vital technological breakthroughs were spread and thoroughly utilized
   by Rome, contributing to an enormous degree to Rome's dominance and
   lasting influence in Europe.

Engineering and architecture

   Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in ca. 19 BC. It is
   one of France's top tourist attractions and a World Heritage Site.
   Enlarge
   Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in ca. 19 BC. It is
   one of France's top tourist attractions and a World Heritage Site.

   Roman engineering constituted a large portion of Rome's technological
   superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds
   of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas. Many
   monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, still
   remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.

   The Romans were particularly renowned for their architecture, which is
   grouped with Greek traditions into " Classical architecture". However,
   for the course of the Roman Republic, Roman architecture remained
   stylistically almost identical to Greek architecture. Although there
   were many differences between Roman and Greek building types, Rome
   borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building
   designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns,
   composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the
   Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until
   the end of the Roman Republic.

   It was at this time, in the 1st century BC, that Romans started to
   widely use concrete (which was invented in the late 3rd century BC), a
   powerful cement derived from pozzolana which soon supplanted marble as
   the chief Roman building material and allowed for numerous daring
   architectural schemata. Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De
   architectura, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in
   history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to make use of
   glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria, which occurred about 50
   BC, and mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved
   during Sulla's campaigns in Greece. Article on history of Roman
   concrete
   The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome to the
   southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.
   Enlarge
   The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome to the
   southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.

   Concrete made possible the paved, durable Roman roads, many of which
   were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The
   construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the
   Roman Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence.
   Originally constructed for military purposes, to allow Roman legions to
   be rapidly deployed, these highways had enormous economic significance,
   solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the
   phrase "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained way
   stations which provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervals
   along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established a
   system of horse relays for couriers that allowed a dispatch to travel
   up to 800 km (500 miles) in 24 hours.

   The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and
   industrial sites and to assist in their agriculture. The city of Rome
   itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts with a combined length of 350
   km (260 miles).^ Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface,
   with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Powered
   entirely by gravity, the aqueducts transported very large amounts of
   water with an efficiency that remained unsurpassed for two thousand
   years. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 miles had to be
   crossed, inverted siphons were used to force water uphill.^

   The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were
   particularly famous for their public baths, called thermae, which were
   used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to
   have flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the
   Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into
   the Tiber river. Some historians have speculated that the use of lead
   pipes in sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning
   which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of
   Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome. However, lead content
   would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts
   could not be shut off, it ran continuously through public and private
   outlets into the drains, only a small number of taps were in use.

Great Roman Buildings

Colosseum

   The Colosseum
   Enlarge
   The Colosseum

   The Colosseum is an immense stadium, constructed circa CE 70-72, that
   remains a world-famous landmark today. At 48 meters high, 188 meters
   long, and 156 meters wide, it could seat 50,000 people. Upon its
   completion, a 100-day celebration was held. During these feasts, 11,000
   Jews, Christians, slaves and over 5,000 animals were killed.

   In the centre of the Colosseum was a wooden stage, covered with about
   15 cm of sand to soak up blood. The walls had 80 entrance arches,
   called vomitoria. There were four entrances specifically for emperors.

Circus Maximus

   The Circus Maximus was a building used mostly for chariot racing, but
   sometimes for hunts or mock battles. It was 600m long, 225m wide, and
   could seat up to 300,000 people. It was built in the 6th century B.C.
   It burned down twice, and the stands collapsed on at least two
   occasions, killing many people.

   The Circus Maximus was oval shaped, with a long barrier in the middle
   that contained statues, columns, along with two temples. On one temple
   there were seven egg shaped objects, and atop the other, seven dolphin
   shaped objects. Each time an individual completed a lap, an egg or a
   dolphin was removed, to keep track of the remaining laps.

   Unlike in most Roman buildings, men and women could sit together. The
   emperor had a reserved seat, as did the senators, and other
   dignitaries.

Pantheon

   The Pantheon was a beautiful building in honour of the Olympic gods. It
   is the most well-preserved building in ancient Rome. The original
   Pantheon was built in 27 B.C. It was rebuilt in 609 A.D., most likely
   because of a fire. Pope Boniface received it as a gift from the
   emperor. The interior of the Pantheon is a circle, 43 m in both
   directions. It has a hemispheric dome with a skylight, or oculus, on
   the top, measuring 8.9 m in diameter.

Forum Romanum

Via Sacra

   The Via Sacra, or the Sacred Way was the main and widest street in the
   Forum. This was the place of triumphs, religious festivals, and the way
   of victorious generals.

Lapis Niger

   This old, strange monument was the place of the oldest Latin
   inscription (writing) known. The “rock” was made up of an altar, a
   column with the inscription on it. According to legend this building
   was thought to be, and perhaps is, the tomb of Romulus, the first king
   of Rome.

Curia

   The Curia was the first Senate house, furnished with simple, wooden
   benches, desks and a chair for the speaker. Later the Curia was
   destroyed by a group of protesting people.

Basilica Aemilia

   The basilica was built in 179 B.C. It was beatified and restored by the
   families of the basilica.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

   After the death of the wife of emperor Antoninus Puis, he had this
   temple constructed in her honour, and when Antoninus died, it was
   rededicated for both of them. The temple was turned into a church in
   the middle ages. Much of the temple is well preserved.

Arch of Titus

   This arch is the most celebrated arch of Rome. It was built by the
   popular Emperor Titus, who suddenly died in plague A.D. 81. The brother
   of Titus reconstructed the arch, including beautiful carvings.

Temple of Venus and Roma

   This was an enormous temple built for the gods Venus and Roma to be
   honored. The part dedicated to Roma faced the Forum, and the one for
   Venus faced the amphitheatre.

Temple of Julius Caesar

   The original name is Templum Divi Juli. Only a few parts remain from it
   today. Caesar's body was burned in front of the temple, and it is
   thought that his remains were placed on an alter, in the centre of the
   building.

Temple of Castor and Pollux

   This temple was built in the honour of Castor and Pollux, the twin sons
   of Jupiter. The legend says that two young men helped win a battle
   against the Latins. Then they went to watch the sunset in the Forum,
   and they were never seen again after that.

Basilica Constantine

   The Basilica was begun in 306-310 and was finished in 312-337. Today
   only three huge arches are left. For Romans it was the centre of
   justice.

Basilica Julia

   In 54 B.c. Julius Caesar began building the basilica, but was not able
   to finish it. But when completed it became one of the favorite places
   of the Roman people.

Temple of Saturn

   The legend says that there was an altar for the god Saturn on the
   Capitoline hill, and the building was built around it.

Tabularium

   The Tabularium was a beautiful building for storing state papers, such
   as important deeds, laws, treaties (state agreements) and papers of the
   Senate.

Temple of Vespasian

   The emperor Vespasian was the father of Titus. He was the only Roman,
   who we know about, having a sense of humor on deathbed. His word were
   something like this: “I think I’m becoming a god now.” This was
   considered funny at that time, because emperors considered themselves
   gods during their whole lifetime, and emperor’s were usually very
   dramatical, when they were dying. There is not much remaining from this
   temple, but it is thought that it was very decorative.

Temple of Concordia

   More than 2000 years ago, when the normal people (the plebeians) with
   struggling against the higher ranked people, (the patricians) for an
   equal share of rights. An old man stood on the steps of the
   Senate-house and said: “besought (ask) the gods that they would bring
   these troubles to a happy conclusion”. Then he vowed to build a temple,
   the temple of concord, which made peace amongst the people. Concordia
   was the goddess of agreement in Roman mythology.

Lacus Curtius

   The Lacus Curtius is a simple monument, with a horse and a soldier
   riding it. There are three stories about this stone. 1. lightning
   struck into the place, and the consul Curtius closed the area with a
   fence in 445 B.C., and this is what’s left of it. 2. that a chasm, a
   gap suddenly appeared in the forum. Soothsayers (people who told about
   the future) said that it could be only closed if someone leapt into it.
   The brave Curtius jumped into the crack, which then closed. 3. Mettius
   Curtius rode his horse into a swamp to escape Romulus.

Rostra

   The Rostra was a platform for speakers. Many famous Roman speeches were
   delivered here on this flat building. It was well decorated with
   statues and carved pictures. Next to the rostra Augustus set up a
   sculpture covered with gold, that had the names of the major cities in
   rome. This was called “Miliarium aereum”.

Arch of Septimus Severus

   This arch was built in 203 A.D. in honour of the victory of emperor
   Septimus Severus, and his sons, Caracalla and Geta. When the emperor
   died the two sons were ruling together. In public they pretended to
   love each other, but in reality they hated each other. Carcalla trapped
   his brother and killed him.

Columna Phocae

   This was a column, in the forum made from white marble. The monument
   was built for the emperor Phocae.

Lacus Juturnae

   This was a spring or well in the forum, dedicated to the young girl,
   Juturna, according to the mythology. It was thought that the water in
   the well was healing.

Porticus Deorum

   This was the holy place of the twelwe main gods and goddesses of rome.
   The gods were: Jupiter-Juno, Neptune-Minerva, Apollo-Diana, Mars-Venus,
   Vulcan-Vesta, and Mercyry-Ceres. There were eight open rooms in the
   Porticus Deorum, and the sculptures of the gods were put into these
   rooms in twos.

Carcer

   The Carcer was a prison. The upper part was where prisoners were
   sentenced. The underground section where executions were carried out
   was called the Tallianum. St. Peter and Paul were kept there in the
   time of Nero. According to legend St. Peter asked for some water, and
   baptized the jailers.

Military

   Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's Column in the Victoria and
   Albert museum, London.
   Enlarge
   Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's Column in the Victoria and
   Albert museum, London.

   The early Roman army was, like those of other contemporary city-states,
   a citizen force in which the bulk of the troops fought as a type of
   phalanx. The soldiers were required to supply their own weapons, and
   returned to civilian life once their service was ended.

   The first of the great army reformers, Camillus, reorganized the army
   to adopt manipular tactics and divided the infantry into three lines:
   hastati, principes and triarii.

   The small landholders had traditionally been the backbone of the Roman
   army, but by the end of the 2nd century BC, the self-owning farmer had
   largely disappeared as a social class. Faced with acute manpower
   problems, Gaius Marius transformed the army into a volunteer force and
   accepted recruits from the lower classes, providing arms and armor for
   these troops out of his own pocket.

   The Roman army was a marvel of discipline, which arguably made it one
   of the best armies of its time. Over the course of history, Rome faced
   many enemies who had more skilled warriors than the Roman Legionary,
   and some of these enemies even had the advantage of superior numbers;
   yet the Roman legions won through. The Roman army owed much of its
   success to its brilliant generals, but no general can command an army
   that doesn't obey him.

   Roman legionaries had comparatively less skill at fighting than most of
   their opponents, but they also had less of the impetuous spirit that
   made their Celtic enemies so fearsome. With their little swords and
   unwieldy shields they could defeat all but the most fearsome and
   determined of barbarian tribes.

   Roman discipline was brutal; running from a battle was generally
   punished by death, and minor breaches of military rules could earn a
   flogging. A Legion was trained to virtually worship the silver eagle
   standard, and its loss in battle meant the Legion's disbanding. The
   Roman Legions specialized in working as a team and sticking together:
   the Legionaries would follow their general anywhere, even to civil war.

   The Roman legion was one of the strongest aspects of the Roman army.
   The Roman triumph was a civic ceremony and religious rite held to
   publicly honour a military commander. The legions were also physically
   powerful and had a lower tendency to illness than other armies. Not
   only because of a food shortage, but because garlic and onions were so
   effective in being a nutritious food and long-lasting, the Roman army
   was fed garlic while marching. The legions were supported by
   auxiliaries, troops drawn from the provinces who could earn Roman
   citizenship through military service.

   The last army reorganization came when Emperor Constantine I divided
   the army into a static defense force and a mobile field army. During
   the Late Empire, Rome also became increasingly dependent on allied
   contingents, foederati.

Scholarly studies

   The interest in studying ancient Rome arose presumably during the Age
   of Enlightenment in France. Charles Montesquieu wrote a work "
   Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the
   Romans". The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall
   of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, which encompassed the period from
   the end of 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.
   Like Montesquieu Gibbon paid high tribute to the virtue of Roman
   citizens. Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the criticism and
   wrote The Roman History, carried until the First Punic war. Niebuhr has
   made an attempt to determine the way the Roman tradition appeared.
   According to him, Romans, like other people, had a historical ethos
   which was preserved mainly in the noble families. During the Napoleonic
   period the work titled The History of Romans by Victor Duruy appeared.
   It highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. History of
   Rome, Roman constitutional law and Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, all
   by Theodor Mommsen, became very important milestones. Later the work
   Greatness and Decline of Rome by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The
   Russian work Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно
   в эпоху Империи (The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly
   During the Empire) by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy
   of Pomponius Atticus, one of the greatest landowners during the end of
   Republic.

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