   #copyright

Alchemy

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General Chemistry


   This is a featured article. Click here for more information.

   In the history of science, alchemy refers to both an early form of the
   investigation of nature and an early philosophical and spiritual
   discipline, both combining elements of chemistry, metallurgy, physics,
   medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, spiritualism, and art.
   Alchemy has been practiced in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Persia,
   India, and China, in Classical Greece and Rome, in Muslim civilization,
   and then in Europe up to the 19th century—in a complex network of
   schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.

   Western alchemy has always been closely connected with Hermeticism, a
   philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to Hermes
   Trismegistus, a syncretic Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist.
   These two disciplines influenced the birth of Rosicrucianism, an
   important esoteric movement of the seventeenth century. In the course
   of the early modern period, mainstream alchemy evolved into modern
   chemistry.

   Today, the discipline is of interest mainly to historians of science
   and philosophy, and for its mystic, esoteric, and artistic aspects.
   Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern
   sciences, and many substances and processes of ancient alchemy continue
   to be the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries.

   Although alchemy takes on many forms, in pop culture it is most often
   cited in stories, films, shows, and games as the process used to change
   lead (or other elements) into gold.

Overview

   "The alchemist", by Sir William Fettes Douglas, 1853
   Enlarge
   "The alchemist", by Sir William Fettes Douglas, 1853

Alchemy as an investigation of nature

   The common perception of alchemists is that they were
   pseudo-scientists, liars and charlatans, who attempted to turn lead
   into gold, believing that the universe was composed of the four
   elements of earth, air, fire, and water, and spent most of their time
   concocting miraculous remedies, poisons, and magic potions.

   Although some alchemists were indeed posers, liars and charlatans, most
   were well-meaning and intelligent scholars and distinguished scientists
   such as Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle. These innovators attempted to
   explore the nature of chemical substances and processes. They had to
   rely on experimentation, traditional know-how, rules of thumb—and
   speculative thought in their attempts to uncover the mysteries of the
   physical universe.

   At the same time, it was clear to the alchemists that "something" was
   generally being conserved in chemical processes, even in the most
   dramatic changes of physical state and appearance; that is, that
   substances contained some "principles" that could be hidden under many
   outer forms, and revealed by proper manipulation. Throughout the
   history of the discipline, alchemists struggled to understand the
   nature of these principles, and find some order and sense in the
   results of their chemical experiments—which were often undermined by
   impure or poorly characterized reagents, the lack of quantitative
   measurements, and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature.

Goals of alchemy

   1. The transmutation of metals

   2. The creation of an elixir that would prolong life indefinitely

   3. The transmutation of human life

Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline

   The best known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common
   metals into gold or silver, and the creation of a " panacea," a remedy
   that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely.
   Although these were not the only uses for the science, they were the
   ones most documented and well known. Starting with the Middle Ages,
   European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "
   philosopher's stone", a legendary substance that was believed to be an
   essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. The
   philosopher's stone was believed to mystically amplify the user's
   knowledge of alchemy so much that anything was attainable. Alchemists
   enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for
   their pursuit of those goals, nor the mystic and philosophical
   speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their
   mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day—the
   invention of gunpowder, ore testing and refining, metalworking,
   production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather tanning,
   ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors,
   and so on (It seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the "water of
   life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists).

   On the other hand, alchemists never had the inclination to separate the
   physical (chemical) aspects of their craft from the metaphysical
   interpretations. Indeed, from antiquity until well into the Modern Age,
   a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as
   unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one
   thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as
   well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and
   symbols of biblical and pagan mythology, astrology, kabbalah, and other
   mystic and esoteric fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe
   ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation. Moreover,
   alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which
   they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental
   facts.

   Starting with the middle ages, some alchemists increasingly came to
   view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and
   chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere
   metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. Thus,
   both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal
   panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible
   and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and
   everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some
   mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the
   alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from
   ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden
   spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that
   are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols,
   diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically
   contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to
   other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously "decoded" in order
   to discover their true meaning.

Alchemy and astrology

   Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to
   astrology—which, in the Islamic world and Europe, generally meant the
   traditional Babylonian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems
   often postulated that each of the seven planets known to the ancients "
   ruled" or was associated with a certain metal. See the separate article
   on astrology and alchemy for further details. In Hermeticism it is
   linked with both astrology and theurgy. "Everything that happens once
   will never happen again. But anything that happens twice will surely
   happen a third time." A quote from The Alchemist.

Alchemy in the age of science

   Up to the 18th century, alchemy was actually considered serious science
   in Europe; for instance, Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his
   time and writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult
   studies) than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is
   famous. Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are Roger Bacon,
   Saint Thomas Aquinas, Tycho Brahe, Thomas Browne, and Parmigianino. The
   decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern
   chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for
   matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the
   universe based on rational materialism.

   In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist,
   Baron Carl Reichenbach, worked on concepts similar to the old alchemy,
   such as the Odic force, but his research did not enter the mainstream
   of scientific discussion.

   Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the
   sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms
   into gold atoms via a nuclear reaction. However, the new gold atoms,
   being unstable isotopes, lasted for under five seconds before they
   broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element
   transmutation—by means of electrolysis or sonic cavitation—were the
   pivot of the cold fusion controversy of 1989. None of those claims have
   yet been reliably duplicated.

   Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by
   psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung reexamined alchemical
   symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical
   work as a spiritual path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods
   have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts, such
   as the New Age movement.

Alchemy as a subject of historical research

   The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the
   obscure hermetic language of the alchemists is gradually being
   "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual
   connections between that discipline and other facets of Western
   cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the
   intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and
   other mystic movements, cryptography, witchcraft, and the evolution of
   science and philosophy.

Etymology

   The word chemistry comes from the earlier study of alchemy, which is
   basically the quest to make gold from earthen starting materials. As to
   the origin of the word “alchemy” the question is a debatable one, it
   certainly has Greek origins, and some, following E. Wallis Budge, have
   also asserted Egyptian origins. Alchemy, generally, derives from the
   old French alkemie; and the Arabic al-kimia: "the art of
   transformation." The Arabs borrowed the word “kimia” from the Greeks
   when they conquered Alexandria in the year 642 AD. A tentative outline
   is as follows:
    1. Egyptian alchemy [5,000 BC – 400 BC], Alexandria has the world’s
       largest library
    2. Greek alchemy [332 BC – 642 AD], the Greeks take over Alexandria
    3. Arabian alchemy [642 AD – 1200], the Arabs take over Alexandria,
       e.g. Jabir is the main chemist.
    4. European alchemy [1300 – Present], Gerber builds on Arabic
       chemistry
    5. Chemistry [1661], Boyle writes his classic chemistry text The
       Sceptical Chymist
    6. Chemistry [1787], Lavoisier writes his classic Elements of
       Chemistry
    7. Chemistry [1803], Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory

   Thus, an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later
   the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist
   as "chemistry".

Alchemy in history

   Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols
   used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in astrology at
   the time.
   Enlarge
   Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols
   used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in astrology at
   the time.

   Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four
   millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for
   cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual
   influences and "genetic" relationships.

   One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be
   largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy,
   centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; and Western
   alchemy, whose centre has shifted over the millennia between Egypt,
   Greece and Rome, the Islamic world, and finally back to Europe. Chinese
   alchemy was closely connected to Taoism, whereas Western alchemy
   developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial
   connections to the major Western religions. It is still an open
   question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what
   extent they influenced each other.

Alchemy in ancient Egypt

   The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient
   (pharaonic) Egypt. Metallurgy and mysticism were inexorably tied
   together in the ancient world. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in
   ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class.

   Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient
   (Hellenic) Greek philosophers, which in turn have often survived only
   in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on
   alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely
   lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical
   books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a
   centre of Egyptian alchemy.

   Nevertheless archaeological expeditions in recent times have unearthed
   evidence of chemical analysis during the Naqada periods. For example, a
   copper tool dating to the Naqada era bears evidence of having been used
   in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at ). Also, the
   process of tanning animal skins was already known in Predynastic Egypt
   as early as the 6th millennium BC . Other evidence indicates early
   alchemists in ancient Egypt had invented mortar by 4000 BC and glass by
   1500 BC. The chemical reaction involved in the production of Calcium
   Oxide is one of the oldest known (references: Calcium Oxide, limekiln):

          CaCO[3] + heat → CaO + CO[2].

   Ancient Egypt additionally produced cosmetics, cement, faience and also
   pitch for shipbuilding. Papyrus had also been invented by 3000 BC.

   Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the god Thoth,
   called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes ( Hermes Trismegistus) by
   the Greeks. According to legend, he wrote what were called the
   forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of
   knowledge—including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the caduceus or
   serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols.
   The " Emerald Tablet" or Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes, which is
   known only through Greek and Arabic translations, is generally
   understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and
   practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners.

   The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetic
   science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is
   like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is
   below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing." This is the
   macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic philosophy. In other
   words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world
   (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through astrology, and the
   earth through the elements. Though when one gains mastery over their
   inner world, they begin to be able to control the exterior world in
   unconventional ways.

   It has been speculated that a riddle from the Emerald Tablet—"it was
   carried in the womb by the wind"—refers to the distillation of oxygen
   from saltpeter—a process that was unknown in Europe until its
   (re)discovery by Sendivogius in the 17th century.

   In the 4th century BC, the Greek-speaking Macedonians conquered Egypt
   and founded the city of Alexandria in 332. This brought them into
   contact with Egyptian ideas. See Alchemy in the Greek World below.

Chinese alchemy

   Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of
   base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious
   connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists
   can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese
   alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not
   unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the
   universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in
   common than it initially appears.

   Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese
   alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in fireworks in
   China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China,
   the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world and
   Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in
   1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.

   Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional
   Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial
   arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools
   believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic
   branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical). In fact, in the early Song
   Dynasty, followers of this Daoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper
   class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low
   levels, lead many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death
   would lead to freedom and access to the Daoist heavens, the ensuing
   deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favour of
   external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the
   Qi, etc.).

Indian alchemy

   Little is known in the West about the character and history of Indian
   alchemy. An 11th century Persian alchemist named al-Biruni reported
   that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to
   them, which is called Rasayāna in persian Rasavātam. It means the art
   of obtaining/manipulating Rasa, nectar, mercury, juice. This art was
   restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and
   medicines, most of which have mercury as their core element. Its
   principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and
   gave back youth to fading old age." One thing is sure though, Indian
   alchemy like every other Indian science is focused on finding Moksha:
   perfection, immortality, liberation. As such it focuses its efforts on
   transumation of the human body: from mortal to immortal. Many are the
   traditional stories of alchemists still alive since time immemorial due
   to the effects of their experiments.

   The texts of Ayurvedic Medicine and Science have aspects similar to
   alchemy: concepts of cures for all known diseases, and treatments that
   focus on anointing the body with oils.

   Since alchemy eventually became engrained in the vast field of Indian
   erudition, influences from other metaphisical and philosophical
   doctrines such as Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Ayurveda were
   inevitable. Nonetheless, most of the Rasayāna texts track their origins
   back to Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the
   personality of Matsyendranath.

   The Rasayāna was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous
   examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a
   buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of
   Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example
   of early Indian medicine. In traditional Indian medicinal terminology
   'rasa' translates as 'mercury' and Nagarjunacharya was said to have
   developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his
   original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong
   influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day.

Alchemy in the Greek world

   The Greek city of Alexandria in Egypt was a centre of Greek alchemical
   knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and
   Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the
   Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of Pythagoreanism,
   ionianism, and gnosticism. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the
   belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the
   observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or
   anything from which a ratio could be derived. Ionian thought was based
   on the belief that the universe could be explained through
   concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy is believed to have
   originated with Thales and his pupil Anaximander, and later developed
   by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral part of
   alchemy. According to this belief, the universe can be described by a
   few unified natural laws that can be determined only through careful,
   thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component
   introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a
   belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian Roman
   empire, that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed
   manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would
   lead to salvation. They further believed that God did not "create" the
   universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created "from"
   him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted
   by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, that is, original sin). Many
   Gnostic sects further held the Biblical deity to be evil and viewed him
   as a fallen emanation of the High God whom they sought to worship and
   unite with, however the aspect of the Abrahamic god as being evil
   really played no role in alchemy but the aspect of ascending to the
   high god probably had a great deal of influence. Platonic and
   neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were
   also absorbed (their main beliefs see the physical aspect of the world
   as being imperfect and think of God as a transcendent cosmic mind).

   One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by
   Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the
   universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and
   fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it
   belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.

   The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of
   matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy
   never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical
   substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are
   simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the
   amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals
   itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed
   the mystical aspects of this concept.

Alchemy in the Roman Empire

   The Romans adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted
   much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the Roman empire
   the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of
   the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism.

   However, the development of Christianity in the Empire brought a
   contrary line of thinking, stemming from Augustine (354-430 AD), an
   early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the
   fall of the Roman Empire. In essence, he felt that reason and faith
   could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil:
   "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily
   sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking
   pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh,
   and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and
   science."

   Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when
   Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West
   they were not shunned. Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in
   medieval society and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly.

   Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and
   Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies
   in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of
   secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of "hermetic" to
   mean "secretive".) It is possible that some writing was done in
   Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and
   the turbulent periods that followed.

Alchemy in the Islamic world

   After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development
   moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy
   because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings
   that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic
   translations.

   The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and
   Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into
   hermetical science, continued to be assimilated. Islamic alchemists
   such as al-Razi (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) and Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latin
   Geber) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the
   technique of distillation (the words alembic and alcohol are of Arabic
   origin), the muriatic(hydrochloric), sulfuric, and nitric acids, soda,
   potash, and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances,
   al-natrun and al-qalīy, Latinized into Natrium and Kalium, come the
   modern symbols for sodium and potassium.) The discovery that aqua
   regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the
   noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the
   next millennium.

   Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical
   hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably
   Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Arabic جابر إبن حيان, Latin Geberus; usually rendered
   in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was takwin, the artificial
   creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including
   human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four
   basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. According
   to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two
   were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while
   gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the
   qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this
   reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to
   Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the
   root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various
   transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical
   properties.

Alchemy in Medieval Europe

   Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771
   Enlarge
   Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771

   Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures,
   alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and
   Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical
   knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope Silvester
   II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe
   from Spain. Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th
   century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the
   moves were mainly assimilative.

   In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
   principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm (1033–1109) was
   a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine
   and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth
   the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged
   rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the
   philosophical explosion to occur. Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work,
   laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the
   first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on
   alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate
   existence outside of man's consciousness. Abelard also systematized the
   analysis of philosophical contradictions.

   Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory
   that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
   Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
   experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
   Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
   thinking.

   Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) were both
   Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the
   differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
   great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
   far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
   logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
   God, reason must be compatible with theology. . This ran contrary to
   the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through
   divine illumination alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to
   take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered
   to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the
   way of experimentation.

   The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
   did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
   Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford
   Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to alchemy.
   The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the
   world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important
   than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire
   knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience; only the
   last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p.
   367) " Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all other
   sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general principles
   would never have discovered." Roger Bacon has also been attributed with
   originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of
   life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and
   corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of
   the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human
   life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of immortality was
   replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on Earth
   was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God.
   Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology.

   Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
   the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
   the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
   time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
   members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
   parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
   works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
   good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
   interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
   rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
   learn about rationalism.

   So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
   fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
   macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
   that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
   effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of
   purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul).
   They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
   above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
   in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
   uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
   experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
   how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
   their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
   of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
   reunited with God.

   In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
   William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
   Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
   widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
   could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
   incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
   limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
   from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Pope John XXII
   in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively
   removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. The climate
   changes, Black plague, and increase in warfare and famine that
   characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical
   pursuits in general.
   Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
   tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.
   Enlarge
   Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
   tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.

   Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was
   noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in
   those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as
   the archetype for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious
   scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in
   the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone,
   which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time
   describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the
   formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed
   at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him,
   especially as regarded the philosophers' stone.

   Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
   Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
   the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
   allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
   art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
   purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
   (in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
   crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
   many, and were often persecuted for their practices.

   One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century
   was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself
   to be a wizard and was capable of summoning spirits. His influence was
   negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred
   to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to
   change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did
   keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including
   experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory,
   which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite
   of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his
   views often came into conflict with the church.

Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance

   European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the
   Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would
   use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
   transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
   knowledge that—with a "small" initial investment—would surely lead to
   that goal.

   The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
   Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast
   alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
   accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
   experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
   traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
   Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
   Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
   meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
   Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
   scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)

   Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
   wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
   silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
   and power may lie in medicines." His hermetical views were that
   sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the
   microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from
   those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
   soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
   balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
   body had chemical remedies that could cure them. While his attempts of
   treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised
   from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced
   medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
   "Alchemist Sędziwój" (1566–1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867
   Enlarge
   "Alchemist Sędziwój" (1566–1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867

   In England, the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated
   with Doctor John Dee ( 13 July 1527 – December, 1608), better known for
   his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and general "scientific
   consultant" to Queen Elizabeth I. Dee was considered an authority on
   the works of Roger Bacon, and was interested enough in alchemy to write
   a book on that subject (Monas Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the
   Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward Kelley — who claimed to converse with
   angels through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn
   mercury into gold — may have been the source of the popular image of
   the alchemist-charlatan.

   Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michał
   Sędziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor
   and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled
   oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before Scheele and
   Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the gas given
   off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this method, it
   is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius
   Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine.

   Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical and
   astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
   built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.

The decline of Western alchemy

   The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern
   science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and
   its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events
   were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for
   some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the
   18th century.

   Robert Boyle (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf.
   Boyle's law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical
   investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled
   every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note
   the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind
   characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer
   reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach
   eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th
   centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John
   Dalton — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable
   framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the
   futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philosopher's
   stone.

   Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern
   medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the
   human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually
   traced many diseases to infections with germs ( Koch and Pasteur, 19th
   century) or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins ( Lind, Eijkman,
   Funk, et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry,
   the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles,
   interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous
   elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its
   remedies.

   Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the
   clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic
   metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical
   connections — but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an
   arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it
   suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as
   astrology and Kabbalah: excluded from university curricula, shunned by
   its former patrons, ostracized by scientists, and commonly viewed as
   the epitome of charlatanism and superstition. Rosencrutzians and
   freemasons have, however, always been interested in alchemy and its
   symbolism. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the
   Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam.

   These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction
   in European intellectualism against the Romantic movement of the
   preceding century.

Alchemy in the Bahá'í Faith

   Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith, promised the realisation of
   the discovery of a radical approach to the transmutation of elements as
   one of the signs of the coming of age of humanity. He prophesied, as
   well, that after this discovery a great calamity would overcome the
   world, unless mankind would accept his Faith. Bahá'u'lláh also refers
   to the elixir and the philosopher's stone, but states that these are
   spiritual in nature, and refer to the Word of God.

Modern alchemy

   In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of
   alchemy using different means than those of traditional alchemy. These
   developments may on occasion be called "alchemy" for rhetorical
   reasons.

   As of 2006, a universal panacea remains elusive, though futurists such
   as Ray Kurzweil believe sufficiently advanced nanotechnology may
   prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been
   fulfilled by IVF and the cloning of a human embryo, although these
   technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch.

   The aim of artificial intelligence research could be said to be
   creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the
   possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and
   Stuart Dreyfus in their 1960 paper Alchemy and AI. However, because the
   specific aim of alchemy is human transmutation rather than creating
   life from scratch, genetic research, particularly splicing would be
   closer to this goal.

Nuclear transmutation

   In 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert
   nitrogen into oxygen. This process or transmutation has subsequently
   been carried out on a commercial scale by bombarding atomic nuclei with
   high energy particles from modern particle accelerators and in nuclear
   reactors. Indeed, in 1980, Glenn Seaborg transmuted lead into gold,
   though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created
   negated any possible financial benefit.

Unduplicated transmutation claims

   In 1964, George Ohsawa and Michio Kushi, based on the claims of
   Corentin Louis Kervran, reportedly successfully transmutated sodium
   into potassium, by use of an electric arc, and later of carbon and
   oxygen into iron. In 1994, R. Sundaresan and J. Bockris reported that
   they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between
   carbon rods immersed in water. However, none of these claims have been
   replicated by other scientists, and the idea is now thoroughly
   discredited.

Psychology

   Carl Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the
   achievement of individuation; in his interpretation, alchemy was the
   vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the
   Renaissance. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a Yoga
   of the West. Jung also interpreted Chinese alchemical texts in terms of
   his analytical psychology as means to individuation.

Alchemy in art and entertainment

   References to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to
   list. Here we give only a few indicative samples. More titles can be
   found in the philosopher's stone article.

Novels and plays

   Many writers lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of
   satirical attacks. Two early and well-known examples are
     * Geofrey Chaucer, Canon's Yeoman's Tale (ca. 1380). The main
       character, an alchemist on the way to Canterbury, claims that he
       will "pave it all of silver and of gold".
     * Ben Jonson, The Alchemist (ca 1610). In this five-act play, the
       characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people.

   An Alchemical Laboratory, from The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings
   of Chemistry
   Enlarge
   An Alchemical Laboratory, from The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings
   of Chemistry

   In more recent works, alchemists are generally presented in a more
   romantic or mystic light, and often little distinction is made between
   alchemy, magic, and witchcraft:
     * The Alchemist (book) is the name of a novel by Paulo Coehlo where
       the main character meets an alchemist and is taught alchemy
     * Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (1818). Victor Frankenstein uses both
       alchemy and modern science to create Frankenstein's monster.
     * Vladimir Odoevsky, Salamandra (1828).
     * Goethe, Faust, Part 2 (1832). Faust's servant Wagner uses alchemy
       to create a homunculus.
     * Gabriel García Márquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967). An
       alchemist named Melquíades adds to the novel's surreal atmosphere.
     * Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist (1988).
     * Umberto Eco, Foucault's Pendulum (1988).
     * Teresa Edgerton, the Green Lion trilogy: Child of Saturn (1989),
       The Moon in Hiding (1989) and The Work of the Sun (1990). The
       heroine is an alchemist's apprentice. (The second trilogy in this
       setting did not touch on alchemical themes.)
     * Richard Garfinkle, Celestial Matters (1996). Deals (unusually) with
       Chinese Alchemy.
     * J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (1997).
       Features Nicholas Flamel as a character.
     * Neal Stephenson, The Baroque Cycle (2003–2004). Features real and
       imaginary alchemists such as Isaac Newton, de Duillier, and Enoch
       Root.
     * Martin Booth, Doctor Illuminatus: The Alchemist's Son (2003).
     * Margaret Mahy, Alchemy (2004).
     * John Fasman, The Geographer's Library, whose plot revolves around
       thirteen alchemical artifacts.
     * Gregory Keyes, The Age of Unreason series . Features Isaac Newton
       and de Duillier.
     * Cornelia Funke, Dragon Rider (2004). Twigleg the homonculus was
       created by an alchemist.
     * Antal Szerb, "The Pendragon legend" (1934)
     * Some of Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels (1983-present) feature a
       Guild of Alchemists. They are noted for blowing up their own Guild
       building on a regular basis. They play a particularly important
       role in Men at Arms (1993).
     * In the movie Silence Becomes You (2005), alchemy clearly influences
       the decisions and lives of the characters.
     * In Ian Watson's science fiction novel The Gardens of Delight, an
       alchemist of the far future, aided by a powerful extraterrestrial
       being, creates a planet based on Hieronymus Bosch's painting The
       Garden of Earthly Delights, in which Bosch's alchemical allegory
       takes on real substance.

Film and television

     * Television shows such as Fullmetal Alchemist and Charmed use the
       idea of alchemy in its classic sense.
     * In the Star Trek universe, the fictional concepts of the replicator
       and transporter are frequently used as alchemical plot devices
       where base raw materials can be rearranged at the molecular level
       in order to produce objects, devices, foodstuffs, and chemical
       compounds of virtually any nature.
     * In the show Blackadder II, Percy tries to save Edmund's fortune by
       discovering the secrets of alchemy the very same afternoon.

Modern art and exhibition

   Some contemporary artists used alchemy symbols to create new
   masterpieces.
     * Tryptukos is a parallel between modern physics and alchemy exposed
       at Liverpool by an unknown artist. The right part of this triptych
       is an original 14th century engraving from the Naturæ Liber,
       property of the Alchemic Museum, Kutna Hora, Czech Republic.
     * Four Ways of Measuring the Distance Between Alchemy and
       Contemporary Art explains why alchemy is marginal to current visual
       art, and why alchemical thinking remains absolutely central. This
       article has been published in the International Journal for
       Philosophy of Chemistry.

Comics, manga, and video games

     * World of Warcraft, an immersive MMORPG, has a player based trade &
       profession system including Alchemy and Herbalism, which give the
       user the ability to make potions that aid or give the user special
       abilities, such as speed increase, invisibility, health and stats
       bonuses. The Alchemy profession also has an operation called
       Transmute which is used to turn some metals gained from the Mining
       profession into their next higher neighbors.
     * Fullmetal Alchemist (2003), Anime/manga series by Hiromu Arakawa,
       is centered around brothers Edward and Alphonse Elric. 'Alchemists'
       can transform anything within the principle of Equivalent
       Exchange—the "Law of Nature" as it is referred to in this manga
       series. The Elric brothers, much like the Western "Alchemists"
       discussed near the top of this page, are also in search of the
       Philosopher's Stone, but so that they can transmute (alchemize)
       their now metal or semi-metal bodies back to their original states.
       Also, Alchemy is performed using diagrams known as "Transmutation
       Circles" in this series.
     * Sega's Chakan, Genesis and Game Gear video game (1992). The
       immortal swordsman collects potions around the elemental
       planes—each with ingredients of four elements. Chakan has the
       option of mixing any two potions whether its fire and air, earth
       and earth, etc. A variety of Alchemic solutions occur healing
       Chakan, damaging surrounding demons, enhanced abilities in jumping
       and strength, as well as granting elemental properties of fire,
       ice, thunder and lightning to Chakan's two swords.
     * Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, Fantastic Four comics (ca. 1962–). Villain
       Diablo is an alchemist.
     * Darklands, PC game (1992). Alchemy features prominently throughout
       the game.
     * Mike Mignola's Hellboy comics (1993–). The character Roger the
       Homunculus was created by alchemy.
     * Aidyn Chronicles: The First Mage video game. Alchemy is featured as
       a skill.
     * Verant Interactive's smash hit computer game Everquest (1998-).
       Shaman characters may learn and train in this skill.
     * Nintendo's Golden Sun video game (2001). Psynergy is a force that
       threatens the world, which is connected to many displines, Ki, Chi,
       Ply, and of course, Alchemy.
     * Nobuhiro Watsuki, Buso Renkin manga (2003–2006).
     * Kazuki Takahashi, Yu-Gi-Oh! GX anime (2004–). The character Lyman
       Banner (Daitokuji) is an alchemist who preserved his soul within a
       homunculus.
     * Square Enix's Final Fantasy series features the Alchemist as a job
       in several games (for example, as a Dresssphere in Final Fantasy
       X-2).
     * Bethesda Softworks' The Elder Scrolls series prominently features
       alchemy as a method of creating various potions for use by the
       player.
     * Konami's Shadow of Destiny features an alchemist and a creature
       made by alchemy as major characters.
     * Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb, computer game (2003). A large
       portion of the game is centered around a castle in Prague formerly
       owned by an alchemist king.
     * Ultima Online computer game (1997). Alchemy is one of the player
       skills and professions.
     * Zork Nemesis video game (1996).
     * Secret of Evermore (1995) for the SNES, uses an alchemy combat
       system where the player mixes ingredients for combat effects, in
       lieu of typical magic systems.
     * RuneScape, the massive online mulitplayer game by Jagex, allows a
       player to turn items into gold with spells once they have achieved
       a certain mage level.
     * Alchemy is a key plot point and aspect of gameplay in the
       Playstation 2 RPG, Atelier Iris: Eternal Mana.
     * In the popular MMORPG Ragnarok Online a playable character class
       called Alchemist is able to create potions, explosives, simple
       plant type monsters, and homunculi that fight for them.
     * In the video game Haunting Ground (2005), alchemy is a large plot
       point, and the main character is trapped in a castle owned by
       powerful alchemists and their creations, whom chase her in order to
       obtain "the Azoth" in one way or another. The stalkers are all
       clones of a great alchemist from the middle ages, and the whole
       story revolves around enlightenment and purification, rife with
       symbolism for alchemy in general and what its practitioners
       believed.
     * In Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident a brief reference is made to
       alchemy; specifically, that it can be achieved through greater
       technology.
     * In Square Enix's Star Ocean: Till the End of Time, Alchemy is a
       trade that a character can learn in the shops.
     * In The Big O (1999-2003) act 8 Missing Cat, a modern alchemist,
       Eugene, transmutates humans and animals into chimeras.
     * The Atelier Iris games revolve heavily around alchemy, where
       spirits of nature ( Mana) are used to extract elements from the
       environment, and transmute them into a variety of items.

Music

     * Leonard Cohen's album New Skin for the Old Ceremony features an
       alchemical diagram on the cover.
     * The Smashing Pumpkins, album Machina/The Machines of God (2000).
       The album concept and design is based on alchemy and its symbols.
     * Tool (band), album Lateralus (2001).
     * Susumu Hirasawa, album Philosopher's Propeller (賢者のプロペラ, Kenja no
       Puropera)" (2000).
     * Bruce Dickinson, album The Chemical Wedding (1998). The Album's
       concept and artwork are based on William Blake's works as well as
       Alchemy and its symbols.
     * XTC album Mummer features the song "Human Alchemy" about the early
       philosophy behind slavery.
     * Alchemy, the first of Dire Straits' two live albums
     * Home (band), The Alchemist, 1970s progressive rock concept album.
     * Yngwie Malmsteen, album Alchemy. (1999)

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
